Submerged city in the Gulf of Khambat: neolithic precursor of the Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC) This is a response dated 13 March 2002, to: a report on "Questionable Claims" in Frontline issue of March 01-15, 2002. Working in the area off the coast of Gujarat is a tough task with tide fluctuations upto 10 m height and high velocity of currents of upto 6 knots in turbid waters. Project Director Dr. S. Kathiroli, S. Badrinarayanan, D. Venkat Rao, K.M. Sivakkozhuntu, E. Srinivasan and other scientists of the National Institute of OceanTechnology(NIOT) under the direction of Prof.M. Ravindran, have done a remarkable scientific investigation and unravelled a major marine mystery in the Gulf of Khambat They have made a significant contribution to the emerging discipline of Marine Archaeology, The efforts of these Indian scientists and the technological excellence achieved by them should be lauded and encouraged. The work done by NIOT should make every citizen of the country feel proud that India is a force to reckon with in Science and Technology of the world. It is unfortunate that the reporters have failed to recognize the scientific rigour with which the work has been carried out by the NIOT scientists. It was indeed disappointing to find, in some parts of the report, an inadequate appreciation of the excellent technological competence and methodical investigation. It was also disheartening to note the attribution of hasty generalisations to some archaeologists and other experts who have not even seen the exhibit or remarkable assemblage of artefacts .One archaeologist of the Archaeological Survey of India who has seen the exhibits has remarked that the findings constitute a major discovery and that it was a great education for him to learn from the scientists of NIOT new methods of archaeological investigation NIOT team chanced upon the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC) in the course of routine multi-purpose marine surveys undertaken along the long coast-line of the country. Once the unusual finds were recognized, the investigation was pursued vigorously and systematically, for two years, including four investigative visits to the site (comparable to four "seasons" of work undertaken by archaeologists on the ground). Only after the scientists were reasonably satisfied and were able to authenticate the discoveries were the findings reported. This fact attests to the high-level of integrity and the scientific method which has governed the team"s work. Extensive sampling utilising state-of-the-art techniques for positioning using sophisticated equipment and collection of samples could bring out a remarkable collection of artefacts. Samples were collected using: (1) grab sampler; (2) dredgers; and (3) vibro-corer equipment. Over 1000 objects have been collected, out of which about 250 are of archaeological, cultural interest. The methods used for dating some selected artefacts, mostly at a depth of 40 m. below sea level, were: 1. Carbon-14: (a) National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad; Calibrated Age: 7960-7380 BCE Range; Radio-carbon: 8592+- 235 BP (This is an interim report and a final report is awaited); (b) Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeo-Botany, Lucknow (Calculated Age: 8450 - 8350 BP ; Age of sample: 7610+ - 100 BP). 2. Thermo Luminiscence: in process with the Physical Research Institute Ahmedabad for pottery samples 3. Accelerated Mass Petrometry from Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar for corals and shell artefacts Results of the sampling and microscopic examination of artefacts (which have been thoroughly documented with a location index) revealed that they are essentially terrestrial formations with no evidence of their being of marine origin. The cores also revealed that just below half-a-metre thick marine sediments, the entire material is fresh water alluvium with a remarkable number and types of fresh water shells. State-of-the-art technology used by NIOT investigation team included: * Side Scan Sonar (which is a widely accepted method for photographing the sea-bed) used for delineating sea floor surface features and mosaic * Sub Bottom Profiler - for cross-section of the sub-sea-bed * Magnetometre - to identify major structural elements including analysis of impact of tectonics * Under-water remote-controlled videography was attempted using very advanced equipment but due to high turbidity, the optical systems could not be worked beyond 10 m.; high turbidity which is characteristic of the Gulf makes the water opaque to light. The major finding relates to a palaeo-channel (ancient river) lying on the sea-bed of GOK, running in an East-West direction. This channel appears to be aligned along the the present course of the River Tapti extended beyond the gulf into Saurashtra, Gujarat. Palaeo-river channel was identified for a distance of over 9 kms. in the middle of the Gulf along with ancient buried rectangular and square-geometrically-shaped basements (possibly foundations of buildings or platforms). On sampling, the palaeo-channel yielded several river conglomerates about 40 km. away from the present-day coastline, indicating, unambiguously, the riverine nature of the area. The conglomerate was found at 30-40 m depth, 40 km. west of Hazira near Surat in Gujarat. A piece of wood was also found at the same site (see the datings reported earlier). Some of the structures include tanks of size 40 m X 40 m and 45 m X 20 m. including what are referred to as gabar-bands in the Sindhu River Basin for training and diverting river water channels. Also seen are groups of constructions in an area 97 m X 24 m in size which could reasonably be interpreted as comparable to the "acropolis" of the Harappan culture. Some of the astonishing finds include: kiln-burnt potsherds, fused articles with a flat surface with a cylindrical or flat object fused on to it; circular and triangular cakes with precisely drilled holes, even 2 in. long cylindrical beads perforated along the axis and two tablets-in-bas-relief with inscriptions (one with a possible pictorial motif of a person seated in a yogic posture - a typical pictorial motif of objects found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa inscribed with script and another with a triangular sign with lines drawn parallel to the base-line - a pictograph which looks similar to the sign of the Harappan script), semi-fossilized bones (of a bovine), a fossilized jaw-bone, a fossilized part of a vertebral column, a human tooth., semi-precious stone beads with perforated holes of 1cm to less than 1 mm. in diameter. All these artefacts found only on the banks of the river-bed are indicative of human activity, perhaps a precursor of the maritime-riverine civilization that would unfold in the Sindhu Sarasvati River Basins. The stone structures - polished stone pillars and stone rings --, found at Dholavira, a cultural site in another Gulf close-by, the Rann or Gulf of Kutch, close to the sea and some river channels -- should be comparable to the neolithic nature of the finds of GKCC on a river bank and close to the sea. The area of the GKCC is a neo-tectonically active terrain and is a graben (like a rift valley) because of its depressed position topographically. When there was a major sea-level rise during the period 6900-7900 BP the entire present area of Gulf of Khambat was inundated by onrushing sea-water and became the Gulf of Khambat. The entire GOK area had perhaps sunk taking down with it the then existing part of the river (maybe an extension of River Tapti or one of its tributaries) and ancient settlements, along the banks of the ancient river. Since sea-level rise is involved in understanding the history of the formation of the Gulf of Khambat, we have to look for and likely to find similar palaeo-channels and cultural complexes in other parts of the Gulf. Further investigations are likely to reveal early human settlements in the area. As observed so perceptively in the report which appeared in a scientific journal: "If we are keen to discover what possibly lies buried under the sea off an approximately 7000 km. coastline, more facilities in the area of marine archaeology would need to be developed in the country. India has to equip itself with tools to conduct work on marine archaeology." [CURRENT SCIENCE, Vol. 82, No. 4, of 25 February 2002, "The seabed reveals artefacts; will India now hone its skills and tools for diving into the realm of marine archaeology?"] We are on the threshold of further discoveries along the long coastline of India. The efforts of institutions such as NIOT should be encouraged and further efforts made at creating a network of scientists and scholars of a variety of disciplines to collaborate, in a team effort, as a colloquium, under the leadership of NIOT, to unravel the mysteries of the heritage of the country that lie on the sea-bed of the Sindhu sa_gara, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Why is khambat so called? Ancient inscriptions found in Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex Side Scan Sonar Images of the Complex and sunken river valley, 40 km. from the coastline above Bharuch, mouth of Narmada River and close to the mouth of Tapti River Questions which need to be answered through further researches Drainage and Topography map around the Gulf of Khambat showing possible rivers sunk about 40m deep, due to tectonic activity, rise in sea level and incursion of sea into the region near Lothal Land in the region of Lothal (near the Gulf of Khambat) has experienced tectonic uplift since the incursion of the gulf (cf. Prasad et al, 1998, Geomorphology, vol. 25, no. 3-4, pp. 207-223).. [plate9 copy.JPG (95055 bytes)] Lost city! Lost river! No, these are finds of the scientists of Bha_rata, to enable us to rewrite the history of the maritime, riverine civilization of Bha_rata dating back to 9000 years ago very close to the Glacial Maximum and the start of the ecology-sustaining phenomena of monsoons in Pun.yabhu_mi Bha_rata blessed by the ongoing rise of the Himalayan mountain ranges. The finds in the Gulf of Khambat are close to a place called Bhr.gu-kaccha (Broach, Gujarat). Bharukaks.a is the name of a village in ancient Bha_rata. "S'u_dras lived there. At that time of the Ra_jasu_ya of Dharmaputra, these s'u_dras brought gifts to the King.' (Chapter 51, Sabha_ Parva; loc.cit. Vettam Mani, 1975, Pura_n.ic Encyclopaedia, p. 760). The word 'bhr.gu' evokes the early Vedic traditions of Bha_rata; Bhr.gu is reckoned as the son of Varun.a. [Click here for a review of the ancient texts which elaborate the Bhr.gu-Varun.a tradition]. About 18,000 years ago, the entire Eurasian continent was filled with ice sheets for a period of over 1,000 years and some regions were not affected by such glaciation. One such unaffected region which could thus support vegetation and human settlements was Bha_rata. The story of the lost and revived River Sarasvati which nurtured a civilization with over 2,000 archaeological sites dated to ca. 3300 to 1400 BCE, has been told virtually completely by the scientists of Bha_rata. Read about this story of River Sarasvati and urban Civilization at: Sarasvati: Civilization of Bha_rata (pdf) (5 Feb. 2002) : A summary report on discovery and revival What were the roots of this urban Civilization? One surmise was the neolithic site of Mehrgarh west of the River Sindhu. Now another surmise can be made: the neolithic site now submerged in the Sindhu sa_gara (Arabian Sea) in the Gulf of Khambat, dated to over 9,000 years ago. The key events seem to relate to quaternary tectonics and the rise of sea levels about 10,000 years ago. The peninsula of Saura_s.t.ra is an earthquake-prone zone, subject to earthquakes caused by plate tectonics since the region is very close the plate boundaries between the Indian Plate and the European Plate. As the continent of Bha_rata has been moving upwards for millions of years and jutting up with the European Plate on the Tibetan plateau, Himalayas are reckoned as the youngest mountain ranges in the world which still continue to rise at the rate of 1 cm. per year, thanks to the clash of plates of the earth's crust. The tectonic upheavals caused by the fundamental, structural control exercised by this clash of plates on the entire land-mass and the adjoining/surrounding seas of Bha_rata have resulted in the rise of sea levels, the conversion of what were islands in the Gulf of Kutch into the present-day salty marsh of the Rann of Kutch, the joining of the Saura_s.t.ra peninsular along the Cambay Graben with the mainland of Bha_rata, the changes in courses of ancient, Himalayan, glacier rivers (river migrations, river piracies) -- all extraordinary geological activities of the quaternary periods in geological time, which have had a profound impact on the civilization of Bha_rata for over 10 millennia. The Vedic civilization was a maritime, riverine civilization as described in the world's oldest human document -- the R.gveda. The Sarasvati Sindhu Valley civilization (ca. 3300 to 1400 BCE) was also a maritime, riverine civilization as found by the archaeological discoveries of over 2,600 archaeological settlements at: Lothal, Padri, Rangapura, Somnath (Prabhas Patan), Nal Sarovar, Surkotada, Kotda (Dholavira), Kotdiji, Chanhujodaro, Mohenjodaro, Ganweriwala, Kalibangan, Lakhmirwala, Bhatinda, Kunal, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Harappa. This civilization was preceded by the neolithic settlements of Mehrgarh (ca. 8th millennium BCE) and now, the discoveries reported in the year 2002 of the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (ca. 10th millennium BCE). Kudos to the scientists of the National Institute of Ocean Technology who have discovered what appears to be a neolithic settlement in the Gulf of Khambat about 30 m. below the sea-level. This is a discovery that certainly re-writes the history of the Civilization of Bha_rata. The finds from the Gulf of Khambat are kept as exhibits in the IIT Chennai Campus, in the building housing the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT). Shri Badrinarayan, geologist and Dr. Kathiroli, the project director are most helpful and provide a fascinating account of their discovery incidental to their ongoing work to monitor and evaluate scientifically, the treasures along coastline of Bha_rata. India Today's cover story of Feb. 11, 2002 based on the findings reported by NIOT scientists, provides exquisite pictures provided by the NIOT, on the exciting finds which may be called the Lost Neolithic City of Bha_rata. This coverage and the news reports by BBC are linked hereunder for ready reference. Some thoughts on the Urban Culture of the Gulf of Khambat, which like Mehergarh could be the precursor of the Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization. As new discoveries are getting reported, the epicentre of the civilization is shifting towards Gujarat, which could be the Meluhha mentioned in Mesopotamian texts. Dholavira, another stone city in the Gulf of Kutch not too far from the Gulf of Khambat, affords proof for this continuity and the capacity of the neolithic people of Bha_rata to work with stone in seeding the civilization of Bha_rata. The autochthonous nature of the civilization gets unravelled with the findings in the Gulf of Khambat followed up in sequence with the finds in Dholavira in the Gulf of Kutch. The finds at a depth of 30 to 60 m. of the finds in the shoals of the Gulf of Khambat are consistent with the finds of palaeo-channels of River Sarasvati in Rajasthan by the Central Ground Water Board at a depth ranging from 30 to 60 m. based on the exploratory tube-well drillings done using the satellite images of IRS 1-C and 1-D. All the 24 tube-wells have been successful in yielding potable water. The discoveries on the oceanbed in the Gulf of Khambat (let us call it the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex) are remarkable precursors of the civilization which unfolded in the settlements such as Dholavira, Lothal, Padri and Rangapura. The village, Padri-Gohil-ni (Lat. 22° 22'N; Long. 72°95'E) in Bhavnagar District, Gujarat, is located around 55 km to the south of the District headquarters. The ancient site is 2 km to the south of the present village and is spread over an area of 5 ha with a habitational deposit 3.5 m thick. Remains of 3 cultural periods were found, namely: Period I - Early Harappan (c. 3000 - 2600 B.C.), Period II - Mature Harappan (c. 2500 - 2000 B.C.) and Period III - Early Historic (200 B.C. - 200 A.D.). http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/peacock.html "A large part of the complex was used for storage as it yielded a couple of stone-topped mud platforms for supporting storage bins and a number of storage jars of a coarser variety. Some of the rooms were occupied by craftsmen such as coppersmiths and flint-knappers. The room of the former individual yielded a circular furnace, a platform and a number of copper implements. The room of the flint-knapper yielded a small fire-place probably for heating the raw material and a number of waste flakes and finished tools. No evidence of cooking or other domestic activities was found." http://www.picatype.com/dig/dl/dl0aa15.htm Nal Sarovar could be a relic of the River Sarasvati which might have flowed through the funnel of the Little Rann of Kutch into Saurashtra. There are about 100 archaeological sites around this Sarovar region. The shortest riverine route between Dholavira, Surkotada and Lothal could have been through a possible ancient river course which existed through the Nal Sarovar. (It is also possible there were phases of the quaternary period when the sea waters had also encroached into this Sarovar region cutting off Saurashtra from the mainland and making it into an island in ancient times). The large amount of alluvium accumulated in the Gulf of Khambat could be explained only by a mighty Himalayan river system bringing in the detritus into the Gulf. "Alex Rogers, 1870. A few remarks on the Geology of the country surrounding the Gulf of Cambay in Western India, Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of London, 26: 118-124 who was perhaps among the earliest observers of the geology of the Gulf of Cambay (close to Lothal), points out that from the geological formation of the country bordering on the Rann, it appeared that the drainage of the PanjAb once flowed into it: "... The rapid silting up of the Gulf of Cambay gives particular interest to an inquiry into the geological conditions which probably shaped it in remote ages ... (The head of the Gulf) comprises within itself the Great Runn of Cutch ... primary or metamorphic rocks are traceable in its immediate vicinity only in a small tract on its west coast ... even the highest points of the granite peaks show signs of weathering, and probably also of the erosive action of waves ... Many considerations point to the existence in former ages of some large river flowing down from the north, and falling into the Indian Ocean somewhere in the position of the present Gulf of Cambay..." This could have been the River Sarasvati. http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/kach/rannofkutch1.html#Gujarat%20course%20and%20sites The Maha_bha_rata and many Pura_n.as are emphatic that the River Sarasvati_ joined the sea (Sindhusa_gara, or Arabian Ocean) near Prabha_s Patan (Somnath). Balarama's ti_rthaya_tra from Somnath to Mathura along the banks of River Sarasvati is described in the S'alya parva of the Great Epic in over 200 s'lokas. How did the Sarasvati join the sea at this site, beyond, say, Lothal? This may be explained by the presence of a tributary of the River flowing from East to West, south of Lothal and cutting through Padri and Rangapura en route to Somnath. This is a reasonable hypothesis which jibes with the finds of the GKCC which surmise a east-west flowing river upto the west coast of Saurashtra. This can be further explained by tectonic activities which might have caused (during the quaternary periods) an upliftment of the terrain leading to the present-day fan-type drainage system in Saurashtra. The incursion of the sea into land, by a raise in sea level is evidenced by Dwaraka marine archaeological findings of the submergence of the city ca. 1500 BCE. This date matches with the claim made in San:gam literature that Ce_ra kings claim their descent from 42 generations from Dwaraka. (Assuming an average period of 25 years per generation this accounts for 1050 years; thus, if Ce_ra regime on the west coast of India is dated to ca. 500 BCE, the date of the southward movement of people from Dwaraka can be dated to ca. 1550 BCE, a date which matches with the date of the submergence of Dwaraka). The most significant aspects of the discoveries in Dholavira which can be explained as a continuation of the Gulf of Khambat cultural Complex (GKCC) are: 1. use of stone to build walls, gateways, reservoirs for water and staircases 2. sculpting stone into figurines (GKCC shows the figure of an antelope, Dholavira shows the figure of a monitor lizard -- both finds are sculpted in stone) 3. the capacity of stone-workers to use a lathe to drill perfect holes (GKCC shows many stone artefacts with perfect holes drilled in; Dholavira shows evidence of use of ring-stones in situ for supporting pillars for multi-storeyed structures; many ring-stones have also been found in Mohenjo-daro; these were also apparently structural supports for residential buildings or large-scale structures with stone pillars) 4. ability to work with semi-precious and other stones by drilling through them to create necklaces (GKCC and Dholavira and many other archaeological sites have thousands of artefacts attesting to the art of the lapidary working with agate, carnelian and other semi-precious stones and making stone beads). "Lothal. The bead factories, situated where the 8th street of the commercial area and 5th street of the residential area meet, comprised the main industry of the Harrapans who opted to select the Gulf of Cambay region because of it's wealth of agate and other semiprecious stones. The factory comprised 11 rooms, which included the worker's quarters, warehouse and guard room, surrounding a courtyard " http://www.ahmedabadcity.com/tourism/html/lothal1.html Here are the pictures which show the remarkable capacity to work with stone in building settlements and in making stone beads at Dholavira: http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira6.html Broadway and drain outlet with lining in stone http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira5.html Close-up of the bathing tank with walls in stone http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira11.html Huge reservoir with stone steps http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira9.html Rock-cut reservoir http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira4.html Well and other water-structures with stone walls http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira2.html Inter lay-out of North Gate with stone structures and stone staircase http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira.html North Gate -- a general view with stone walls http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira7.html Covered storm-water drain built with stone walls and stones to cover the drain http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira8.html Stone sculpture of monitor lizard http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira12.html Semi-precious stone beads A reasonable hypothesis, therefore, is that the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC) is a precursor of the Sarasvati Sindhu civilization which matured ca. 3000 BCE in sites such as Padri, Rangapura, Dholavira and Prabha_s Patan. It is also notable that the southermost site of the civilization is Daimabad, on the Pravara river which is a tributary to River Godavari near Nasik, attesting to a southward migration of people as the tectonic events accounted for the submergence of Dwaraka and the earlier desiccation of the River Sarasvati. The same tectonic events may explain the earlier formation of the Gulf of Khambat by the incursion of the sea along the Cambay Graben. The delineation of the ancient course of River Sarasvati in Gujarat will be of value to further researches to link the GKCC finds with the SSVC finds. There is a possibility that structures similar to GKCC may also occur in the areas surrounding Dholavira in the Gulf of Kutch and the Great Rann of Kutch. The coast close to the Gulf of Khambat, north of Mumbai is likely to yield conclusive evidence related to the quaternary geology of the region and civilization (neolithic) history which was substantially affected by the active fault-lines of the Cambay Graben which runs through from the Nal Sarovar along the entire coastline through Konkan. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_1345000/1345150.stm Tuesday, 22 May, 2001, 18:14 GMT 19:14 UK Indian seabed hides ancient remains By Rajyasri Rao in Delhi Marine experts have discovered a clump of archaeological structures deep beneath the sea off India's western coast. Although the discovery has not yet been accurately dated, the structures are said to resemble archeological sites belonging to the Harappan civilisation, dating back more than 4,000 years. This is the first time man-made structures have been found in this part of the Arabian Sea which is known as the Gulf of Cambay. The team leader, M Ravindran, told the BBC that they first noticed the huge structures while examining acoustic images collected from under the sea bed. Ancient settlement? The group was routinely investigating the Gulf of Cambay to monitor pollution levels, using devices able to penetrate at least 10 metres deep beneath the sea bed. The images gathered over the past six months led to a surprising discovery - a series of well-defined geometric formations were clearly seen, spread irregularly across a nine-kilometre (five-mile) stretch, a little beneath the sea bed. Some of them closely resemble an acropolis - or great bath - known to be characteristic of the Harappan civilisation. The Gulf of Cambay is one of the largest tidal areas in the world - with a current of very high velocity - and so it is conceivable that the area may well have submerged an entire ancient settlement, Mr Ravindran said. But archaeologists are far more sceptical. Closer study A leading marine archaologist says that far more detailed investigations need to be done to confirm the exact date of the structures. S R Rao, who has spent years researching the nearby Gulf of Kutch, said the only conclusive way of establishing the antiquity of the site was by studying pieces of submerged pottery from the same area. Mr Rao's own research led to the discovery of the first tidal dock in the world - built at around 2300 BC in the port town of Lothal - at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. But he says much more research and evidence is required to categorise the latest discovery in the same manner. Numerous Harappan archeological sites have been found in northern and western India, as well as neighbouring Pakistan. Saturday, 19 January, 2002, 06:33 GMT Lost city 'could rewrite history' http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_1768000/1768109.stm Saturday, 19 January, 2002, 06:33 GMT Lost city 'could rewrite history' By BBC News Online's Tom Housden The remains of what has been described as a huge lost city may force historians and archaeologists to radically reconsider their view of ancient human history. Marine scientists say archaeological remains discovered 36 metres (120 feet) underwater in the Gulf of Cambay off the western coast of India could be over 9,000 years old. The vast city - which is five miles long and two miles wide - is believed to predate the oldest known remains in the subcontinent by more than 5,000 years. The site was discovered by chance last year by oceanographers from India's National Institute of Ocean Technology conducting a survey of pollution. Using sidescan sonar - which sends a beam of sound waves down to the bottom of the ocean they identified huge geometrical structures at a depth of 120ft. Debris recovered from the site - including construction material, pottery, sections of walls, beads, sculpture and human bones and teeth has been carbon dated and found to be nearly 9,500 years old. Lost civilisation The city is believed to be even older than the ancient Harappan civilisation, which dates back around 4,000 years. Marine archaeologists have used a technique known as sub-bottom profiling to show that the buildings remains stand on enormous foundations. Author and film-maker Graham Hancock - who has written extensively on the uncovering of ancient civilisations - told BBC News Online that the evidence was compelling: "The [oceanographers] found that they were dealing with two large blocks of apparently man made structures. "Cities on this scale are not known in the archaeological record until roughly 4,500 years ago when the first big cities begin to appear in Mesopotamia. "Nothing else on the scale of the underwater cities of Cambay is known. The first cities of the historical period are as far away from these cities as we are today from the pyramids of Egypt," he said. Chronological problem This, Mr Hancock told BBC News Online, could have massive repercussions for our view of the ancient world. "There's a huge chronological problem in this discovery. It means that the whole model of the origins of civilisation with which archaeologists have been working will have to be remade from scratch," he said. However, archaeologist Justin Morris from the British Museum said more work would need to be undertaken before the site could be categorically said to belong to a 9,000 year old civilisation. "Culturally speaking, in that part of the world there were no civilisations prior to about 2,500 BC. What's happening before then mainly consisted of small, village settlements," he told BBC News Online. Dr Morris added that artefacts from the site would need to be very carefully analysed, and pointed out that the C14 carbon dating process is not without its error margins. It is believed that the area was submerged as ice caps melted at the end of the last ice age 9-10,000 years ago Although the first signs of a significant find came eight months ago, exploring the area has been extremely difficult because the remains lie in highly treacherous waters, with strong currents and rip tides. The Indian Minister for Human Resources and ocean development said a group had been formed to oversee further studies in the area. "We have to find out what happened then ... where and how this civilisation vanished," he said. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_1763000/1763950.stm Wednesday, 16 January, 2002, 13:14 GMT Indian civilisation '9,000 years old' By Rajyasri Rao in Delhi Marine scientists in India say an archaeological site off India's western coast may be up to 9,000 years old. The revelation comes about 8 months after acoustic images from the sea-bed suggested the presence of built-up structures resembling the ancient Harappan civilisation, which dates back around 4,000 years. The Harappan civilisation is the oldest in the subcontinent. Although Palaeolithic sites dating back around 20,000 years have been found on the coast of India's western state of Gujarat before, this is the first time there are indications of man-made structures as old as 9,500 years found deep beneath the sea surface. Search impeded Known as the Gulf of Cambay, the area has been subject to a great deal of archaeological interest due to its proximity to another ancient submerged site - Dwaraka - in the nearby Gulf of Kutch. But investigations in the Cambay region have been made more difficult by strong tidal currents running at around two to three metres per second. They impede any sustained underwater studies. Marine scientists led by the Madras-based National Institute of Ocean Technology said they got around this problem by taking acoustic images off the sea-bed and using dredging equipment to extract artefacts. A second round of investigations was conducted about three months ago. 'Glorious past' The Indian Minister for Ocean Technology, Murli Manohar Joshi, told journalists the images indicated not only symmetrical man-made structures but also a paleo-river, running for around nine kilometres, on whose banks all the artefacts were discovered. Carbon dating carried out on one of these artefacts - a block of wood bearing the signs of deep fissures - suggested it had been around since about 7,595 BC. Mr Joshi said his ministry planned to set up a multi-disciplinary group to look into what this discovery really meant and what relation it might have to other ancient sites in the area. Critics say the minister, who has been in the eye of a storm recently for attempts to Hinduise school history textbooks, may well be presenting these archaeological discoveries as proof of India's glorious and ancient past. But others say only further scientific studies can tell whether such a claim can be made at all. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_1764000/1764043.stm Thursday, 17 January, 2002, 06:26 GMT Indian site suggests ancient civilisation Scientists in India say an underwater archaeological site off the country's west coast may be the remains of a civilisation more than 9,000-years old. The minister for ocean technology Murli Manohar Joshi said wooden artifacts discovered along a now-submerged river bank in the Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea had been carbon-dated and revealed to be from around 7,500 BC. Last year, scientists thought that the submerged structures at the site were evidence of the 4,000 year old Harappan civilisation - thought to have been the oldest in the region. But this latest discovery, if confirmed, suggests the subcontinent may have been home to an even older civilisation than the Harappan people. From the newsroom of the BBC World Service The Lost Civilisation http://www.indiatoday.com/itoday/20020211/cover.shtml&SET=T Cambay's sunken city may be the oldest in the world It pushes back the age of civilisations by 2,000 years A titanic earthquake could have destroyed the city While doubts persist, the recent findings could revolutionise history By Raj Chengappa Great archaeological discoveries have mostly been [Image][Image] uncovered by chance. In 1991, German tourists out on a walk in the Alps stumbled on the perfectly preserved Ice Age man. That turned out to be the find of the 20th century. Eleven years later, it is the turn of oceanographers from the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) in Chennai. They did it while trawling the murky sea 30 km off the Gujarat coast in the Gulf of Cambay, measuring the levels of marine pollution. As part of the routine, they took sonar photographs of the ocean floor. [39a.jpg (2868 bytes)]Only months later while analysing the images did the team realise that it had unknowingly photographed the ruins of a vast ancient city submerged 40 m under the sea. Last fortnight, after spending weeks dredging the site and picking up over 2,000 artefacts, the NIOT team made some astonishing revelations. It found that the ruins under the sea were strung across a 9-km stretch on the banks of an ancient riverbed which even had signs of a masonry dam. The submerged city bore striking similarities to Indus Valley Civilisation sites in the mainland. One of its structures, the size of an Olympics swimming pool, had a series of sunken steps that looked like the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro. Another rectangular platform was 200 m long and 45 m wide-as big as the acropolis found in Harappa. A larger granary-like structure made of mud plaster and extending to 183 m was discernible. [39b.jpg (4755 bytes)] Not far from these mammoth constructions were rows URBAN SPRAWL: Sonar of rectangular basements that resembled the images show rows of foundations of crumbled homesteads with outlines of rectangular a drainage system and mud roads. The artefacts foundations which may recovered included polished stone tools, ornaments have been homesteads and figurines, broken pottery, semi-precious stones, ivory and the fossilised remains of a human vertebra, a jaw bone and a human tooth. The real stunner came when the team sent samples of a fossilised log of chopped wood to two premier Indian laboratories-the Birbal Shahni Institute of Paleobotany (BSIP) in Lucknow and the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) in Hyderabad-to determine its antiquity. The BSIP dated it as 5500 B.C. But the NGRI found its sample to be much older: possibly dating back to 7500 B.C. The implications are mindboggling. Cambridge [39c.jpg (3033 bytes)] University historian Dilip Chakrabarti, an expert TRUE ARCHITECT: A on ancient Indian archaeology, went so far as to geometrically shaped say, "If the dates are true it would be structure with sunken revolutionary in terms of understanding the growth steps resembles the of villages and cities in the world." Great Bath of Mohenjodaro Till now the first major urban settlements in the world were believed to have appeared in the river valleys of ancient Mesopotamia around 4000-3500 B.C. They were soon followed by the Nile Valley civilisation in Egypt that produced the great Pharaonic culture. The Indus Valley settlements flourished 1,000 years later around 2500 B.C. Now suddenly the lost city of Cambay throws up the tantalising possibility of a civilisation that predates the oldest known ones by 2,000 years. It could, as Chakrabarti puts it, "completely alter all our notions of history". UNLIKELY PROSPECTORS: Current history tells us that the period between The scientists chanced 7500 B.C. and 5000 B.C.-the era that Cambay upon the site while possibly thrived in-produced radical monitoring pollution transformations in society. Classified by [40d.jpg (4747 bytes)] archaeologists as the Neolithic or New Stone Age, [40c.jpg (5282 bytes)] it was the beginning of the end of hunting as a way TEAM SPIRIT:(Top) of life and saw the invention of the ploughshare scientists lower a that brought a revolution in farming. It produced dredge to grab food surpluses that could support large settlements artefacts; and the which slowly crystallised into civilisations. NIOT group with project leader During this extremely creative period, societies Kathiroli (seated developed a dramatic range of skills including centre) pottery, the use of polished stone tools and the domestication of animals. The technological marvel of the wheel opened up a range of innovations. Much of these sprang up in what was known as the Fertile Crescent that forms part of the whole arc of territory running northward of Egypt through Palestine and the Levant, to the hills between Iran and the south Caspian to enclose Mesopotamia. In Jericho in Palestine, there is evidence of a [40a.jpg (1706 bytes)] 7000 B.C. settlement of four hectares which had BONE OF CONTENTION: built thick fortifications and an extended circular Fossilised human watch tower with moats resembling a proto-township. remains of unclear By 6000 B.C. the use of metals instead of stone for antiquity were in tools began to formalise, with residents of a plenty settlement in Catal Huyuk in modern Turkey hammering copper into shape without smelting. Later the technique of blending copper with tin to produce bronze was discovered. The new metal was both easier to cast and retained a much better cutting edge for tools. It took another 2,000 years before its full potential could be exploited, giving birth to the so-called Bronze Age during which the earliest civilisations, including the Indus Valley, flourished. These were characterised by a degree of political consciousness, an advanced form of writing and urban settlements. [40b.jpg (1623 bytes)] In the Indian subcontinent, the only evidence of [40e.jpg (2162 bytes)] large agricultural settlements dating back to 7500 LIFE SIGNS: An B.C. were discovered in Mehrgarh in the Bolan river inscription on a rock valley in Baluchistan, now in Pakistan. But as S.R. and (below) a human Rao, India's most experienced marine archaeologist, jaw bone are among the points out, there is no evidence of parallel artefacts that development of the hinterland in Saurashtra to indicate human support the growth of a big city like Cambay during presence that period. Rao, who was called in by the NIOT team to examine the evidence, concedes that it does show the existence of a prehistoric site. That would make Cambay at least the oldest known settlement in India. Others believe that if validated, the findings could lead to a paradigm shift in the basic premises that Indian history has been built on. Delhi University historian Nayanjot Lahiri is "excited by the possibilities" and says that it could give the heave-ho to the diffusion theory of civilisation that proposes urbanisation spread from West Asia to the Indus and thence downwards to India. The World In 7500 B.C. http://www.indiatoday.com/itoday/20020211/cover2a.shtml The contemporaries of the Cambay dwellers were hunters, learning the art of cultivation [42g.jpg (5913 bytes)]INDIA Most relics of this period, like the one in Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, indicate a primitive life. 20000 B.C. PALEOLITHIC AGE: The Stone Age man led a nomadic life and survived by hunting and food gathering. [42d.jpg (3821 bytes)]AMERICA Before the advent of the Olmecs 1200 B.C., the Mesoamerican people were villagers using simple tools. NEOLITHIC AGE 8000 B.C.: Cultivation began but only stone was used for tools and weapons. [42c.jpg (4212 bytes)]CHINESE Neolithic Chinese sites have yielded stone arrowheads and fish hooks. The silk fabrics and the decorated pottery indicate a well-developed sense of design. 4000 B.C. COPPER AGE: With the discovery of metal, innovations began and so did agrarian townships. [43b.jpg (2470 bytes)]JERICHO Regarded as the oldest and continuously occupied city, Jericho, located near the Jordan river, has yielded remains of a four-hectare township with thick fortifications. 3000 B.C. BRONZE AGE: Civilisations blossomed into urban settlements and societies developed political and religious mores. [43c.jpg (2890 bytes)]NILE VALLEY The Egyptians, relying on the annual flooding of the Nile, were not obliged to build irrigation systems and remained rooted in agrarian rather than urban life, which began only after 3000 B.C. 1800 B.C. IRON AGE: Large-scale migration and trade coupled with technological revolutions marked the end of the Old World. Compiled by Ipshita Banerji Rewriting History The Cambay findings could mean that early Indians were not copycats http://www.indiatoday.com/itoday/20020211/cover-box.shtml [41-grfx.jpg (14470 bytes)] 1 THE AEGEAN: The Cretans in 6000 B.C. were farmers and their culture primitive. The 1,500-year long civilisation reached its peak in 1800 B.C. under the rule of the legendary King Minos. 2 THE EGYPTIAN: Prior to the Bronze Age, there were a large number of small farming communities in Egypt. It was in 3000 B.C. that a conquering family unified the disparate settlements and set up capital at Memphis. 3 THE MESOPOTAMIAN: Pottery relics from this cradle of civilisation date back to 7000 B.C., but urban traces emerge in 5500 B.C. When the Mesopotamians came in 3800 B.C., the tools of civilisation were already in existence. 4 THE HARAPPAN: The twin cities of Indus Valley civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro, reached their peak in 2500 B.C. 5 THE CAMBIAN: Dated at 7,500 B.C. it could be the oldest civilisation yet. 6 THE CHINESE: In China cultivation began in 5000 B.C., but the farmers employed primitive techniques and shifted their villages as the soils became exhausted. Permanent settlements emerged only after 1500 B.C. Life in Cambay City Feb. 11, 2002 India Today http://www.indiatoday.com/itoday/20020211/cover-box2.shtml [42f.jpg (5784 bytes)] [42e.jpg (4876 bytes)] [42b.jpg (2923 bytes)] [42a.jpg (6319 bytes)] FIRST CITY: Scientists found evidence of a citadel area and a 173-m-long granary apart from other mammoth structures stretching for as long as 9 km down an ancient river bed. There were signs that Cambay citizens had constructed a check dam across the river to harness water. [42-grfx.jpg (10222 bytes)] Marked similarities to Harappan structures possibly provide clues to the origin of town planning Where Did They Come From? http://www.indiatoday.com/itoday/20020211/cover2.shtml Cambay could mean that the early Indians were not copycats and that civilisation arose in the subcontinent as an organic process that stemmed from the genius of its own people. Yet, as Lahiri points out, there are many interesting questions that still need to be answered: where, for instance, did the people of Cambay come from? Were they natives or did they come by sea from West Asia? When did they transit from hunter gatherers to agriculture and a mature urban settlement? [43a.jpg (2290 bytes)] Jagat Pati Joshi, former director-general of the "If the dates are Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), thinks the true, it could totally answers to such questions could "provide the alter our notions of missing links" that historians have been searching history." fruitlessly for years. Historians have little Dilip Chakrabarti, evidence to show how a predominantly farming Cambridge University community in the Indian subcontinent took that [43e.jpg (3013 bytes)] giant leap forward in imagination and built some ""It could provide the of the most well-designed cities in the world missing links in during the Indus period. Says Joshi: "Cambay opens understanding the rise for us the horizon of early settlements in the of cities." Neolithic Age in India that were hitherto known to Jagat Pati Joshi, exist only in West Asia which may have powered the Former DG, ASI phenomenal transformation." [43f.jpg (2651 bytes)] "It calls for an For archaeologists the word certainty is an international probe oxymoron. The origin of the glass bangle was similar to the Titanic initially believed to have been the result of search." Indo-Roman contacts in the 1st century A.D. Then Richard Meadow, bangles were found among the painted greyware of Harvard University Hastinapur dating 7 B.C. The ornament's antiquity [43d.jpg (2862 bytes)] and origin was pushed further back when they were "The big question is more recently found in Harappan settlements of where the Cambay 2000 B.C. As S.P. Gupta, chairman of the Indian people came from." Archaeological Society, says, "Nothing is static. Nayanjot Lahiri, Delhi Dates are constantly being revised by newer University findings. The discovery of the Harappan site of Dholavira in Gujarat, for instance, pushed all our dates back by 1,000 years." NIOT's findings has triggered tremendous interest and controversy among leading historians across the world. Harvard University historian Richard Meadow, an expert on South Asian archaeology, believes that a neolithic site in Cambay would "be very much in line" with developments in Mehrgarh and in West Asia during that period. But he thinks it is improper to take "wild guesses" as to whether it was the earliest known city and wants a well integrated research project to validate the findings. Says Meadow: "The discovery is important enough to launch an international collaborative study as was done to uncover the sunken ruins of the Titanic. Other senior scholars vehemently question the basis on which NIOT drew its conclusions. At the University of Pennsylvania, US, archaeologist Gregory Possehl, who has excavated many Harappan sites in India, points out that "there is no scientific reason" to believe that the fossilised wood piece that was dated back to 7500 B.C. is linked to the ruins in the sea bed. Given the strong tidal movement of the region it could easily have been swept from elsewhere. That is something that even Cambridge's Chakrabarti points out. The NIOT team acknowledges that both historians have a point. S. Kathiroli, who heads the team, says in the months ahead they are going to send other key artefacts for dating to see if they corroborate the initial findings. Much of the reason for the seemingly haphazard research is that the NIOT team's expertise doesn't lie in archaeology but in oceanography. Kathiroli readily admits that he had his last history lesson decades ago in school. [46b.jpg (3623 bytes)] When the team first made its speculation public in ROAD TO FASHION May last year, many experienced archaeologists Huge amounts of brushed their theories aside as poppycock. One semiprecious stones even suggested that they had possibly mistaken an and beads indicated old shipwreck as plenty of them are known to have that dressing up was met watery graves off India's west coast. in Stung by the criticism, the team left nothing to chance. When they sailed again for the site in November, apart from consulting experts on how to go about the task they took along marine geologist S. Badrinarayan. This time they equipped themselves with a robotic vehicle fitted with a video camera that they hoped would take sharper underwater photographs. They also took a dredge and a scoop to pick up as many samples to prove that the city did exist. On the surface, the Gulf of Cambay, where they were prospecting looks serene. But some of the fiercest tidal currents in the world churns the bottom of the ocean leaving a muddy concoction in its wake. Video photography using the robot soon proved [46c.jpg (3592 bytes)] futile as visibility was near zero. So the team GEMS OF CLUES: Fairly again had to rely on sonar photography. The dredge advanced bead-making also kept snapping making the collection of capability using a artefacts a nightmare. It was only the findings variety of stones was that kept their spirits going. "We were dumbstruck evident from the when we saw the human remains. Most of us dreamt findings of ghosts that night," recalls Badrinarayan. These findings doubled their enthusiasm and even the crew members participated in the sieving work to find artefacts in the tonnes of sludge they hauled up each day from the bottom. It was when they pulled up the fossilised log of wood that the team knew it had struck gold because its age could easily be determined through a technique called carbon dating. [46a.jpg (1683 bytes)] Eyebrows were raised among academic circles when A STONE-AGE TOOL: The Union Minister for Human Resources Murli Manohar site produced a Joshi made the team's findings public at a press profusion of neolithic conference in Delhi on January 16. Many believed implements that the team should have first published its findings in a reputed scientific journal as it would have bestowed it with far more credibility. Having a senior Union minister like Joshi involved has its benefits. It has helped the team convince the Government to launch a national multi-disciplinary project to uncover the mysteries that the lost city of Cambay has thrown up. A host of specialist institutes will now assist the NIOT including the ASI, the National Institute of Oceanography in Goa, the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad apart from the NGRI, BSIP and a cluster of universities. Joshi is convinced that "the impact of the discoveries will be far reaching" and that "several areas need detailed investigation". Among them is to understand how the city got submerged and ended up 30 km off the coast. Harsh Gupta, secretary, Department of Ocean Development and a geologist of repute, believes it could have been a massive earthquake that caused destruction. The region falls in the high seismic risk zone and last year's earthquake in Bhuj showed just how vulnerable the state is. In 1819, another massive earthquake saw land in some place lift up by 6 m creating the famous Allah bandh. Yet the most important quest is to conclusively establish the age of the sunken city of Cambay. Clearly just dating a piece of wood found on the site is far from satisfactory. Also merely using a dredge to pull up artefacts without marking the strata from which they were removed from - vital to good archaeology - makes convincing findings difficult. True the team was handicapped by lack of experience and equipment. Also as Kathiroli points out: "Even 75 years after the discovery of the Harappan ruins we continue to excavate sites and discover that we don't know enough. So please don't expect one expedition to answer all the questions." In the coming years, the probe into Cambay's true antiquity if done thoroughly could, like the discovery of the Ice Age man, become the most exciting find of this century. -with Arun Ram in Chennai Bhr.gu, va_run.i, son of Varun.a: Provenance of Bhr.gu: Gulf of Khambat The language is bha_s.a_, Meluhhan: Mlecchita Vikalpa, the code of the inscribed objects Rebus representations in inscribed objects of the civilization Furnace and forge of blacksmiths Sarasvati: Civilization of Bha_rata (pdf) (5 Feb. 2002): A summary report on discovery and revival Samudra or ks.i_rasa_gara manthanam, 'churning the ocean of milk' Why is khambat so called? kumpa_t. is a Munda. One of three other possibilities: because, (1) early organized agricultural farming started here or (2) early stone-work or metalsmithy started here; or (3) the region is prone to earth-quakes. 1. Cognate with kampat.i plot of land on the outskirts of a village set apart for growing bulrush millet [a significant term which may refer to organized agriculture] 2. Cognate with kamma_ra worker in metal (Pali); ka~pr.aut. jeweller's crucible made of rags and clay (Bi.); kammat.i coiner (Ka.)ka_ma_t.t.i labourer, one who works with a hoe, digger of earth (Ta.Ma.) 3. kambr.i~_ (L.) i.e. prone to earth-quakes. The lexical repertoire from the languages of Bha_rata which may have a relevance to the etymology of the 'Gulf of Khambat' is presented as follows: 2136.Munda: kompat., kompa_t., kumpa_t. adj. with mund.a, a genuine munda, one of those generally called mundas simply, in contrast to mahali mund.a, ho_ mund.a, birur.u mund.a etc. (Mu.lex.) Grain-pit: kha~wa_r.a_ large pit for storing grain in (H.); kha~wa_, khau~ pit for storing grain in (H.)(CDIAL 3656). X ks.am earth (RV.)(CDIAL 3656). khamburu hollow left in a heap of grain when some is removed (K.); khama_ long pit, hole in the earth (Or.); khamia_ small hole (Or.); kha~_bar.o hole (Marw.); kha~_bhu~ pit for sweepings and manure (G.)(CDIAL 13639). kha_ma_r barn (B.); khama_ra barn, granary (Or.)(CDIAL 13641). 2109.Image: vibration, shaking, trembling: kampam < kampa vibration, shaking, motion (Man.i. 17,63); kampitam quivering, quaking, trembling, shaking (Tiruva_ta. Pu. Man.cumanta. 56)(Ta.lex.) kampan-am motion, vibration, shaking; quaking, trembling with fear (Ka_cippu. Tar..uvak.); kampalai trembling, quivering, quaking; uproar, tumult, quarrelling; kampittal to shake, toss (Kampara_. Paracura_map. 8); to tremble, quake (Tiruva_ca. 4,61); to shake, vibrate (Pirapo_ta. 23,12) (Ta.lex.) kampa tremor (MBh.); kam.pa tremor (Pkt.); ka_m trembling (N.); kampa_ id. (Or.); ka~_p (H.); shivering (G.M.)(CDIAL 2765). kampaka trembling (Pali)(CDIAL 2766). kampate_ trembles, shivers (MBh.); kampati (Pali); kam.pai (Pkt.); ka~_p (Dm.); kambu_m I shiver (Phal.); kamun (K.); kamban.u (S.); kamban. (L.); kambn.a_ to shiver (P.); ka_mn.o (Ku.); ka_mnu (N.); ka~piba (A.); ka~_pa_ (B.); kampiba_ (Or.); ka~_pal (Bhoj.); ka~_pab (Mth.Aw.); ka~_pna_, ka_pna_ (H.); ka~_pvu~ (G.); ka~_pn.e~ (M.); kapuma trembling (Si.); kam.pa_ve_i makes tremble (Pkt.); kamba_un.a_ (P.); kama_unu (N.); ka~pa_iba_ (Or.); kampa_iba (A.); kapa_eb (Mth.); ka~pa_na_ (H.); kapavuma trembling (Si.)(CDIAL 2767). kampana trembling (Sus'r.); tremor, earthquake (Pali); kam.pan.a trembling (Pkt.); kambin.i_ (S.); kambr.i~_ (L.); kamn.a~_ (L.); ka~pani (A.); ka~_pan, ka~_pani (B.); ka~_pan (Mth.)(CDIAL 2768). kampra trembling (Pa_n..); agile (Skt.); kam.pira trembling (Pkt.); ka~_pra_ given to trembling (M.); ka~_pra_, ka~_pre~ trembling (M.)(CDIAL 2769). kampa-va_tam shaking palsy, paralysis agitons (Ta.lex.) tun.ukkam trembling, palpitation of the heart through fear (Kampara_. U_rte_t.u. 97); vibration; tun.un:ku-tal to fear (Ta.lex.) 2106.Army: kampana, kampa_na (IE 8-3.IEG.) the army (in ancient Kashmir); kampan-a_dhipati (HD) commander-in-chief (in ancient Kashmir); same as kampanapati, kampanes'a, kampan-odgra_haka etc. (Ra_jatarangin.i_, V.447; VII.1362, 1366.) kavan-am war; army; perplexity, bewilderment; heat (Ta.lex.) cf. kadana (Skt.) 2104.Workshop: kamhala workshop (Si.); kammala smithy (Si.); kammasa_la_ (Pkt.); karmas'a_la_ workshop (MBh.)(CDIAL 2896). cf. karuman-, karumakan- blacksmith (Ta.lex.) Blacksmith; labourer: kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.); kamarsa_yar id. (Bi.)(CDIAL 2899). karuman- blacksmith (Ta.); karu-makan- id. (Kampara_. Pampa_. 37)(Ta.lex.) karma_ra blacksmith (RV.); kamma_ra worker in metal (Pali); kamma_ra, kamma_raya blacksmith (Pkt.); kama_r (A.); ka_ma_r (B.); kama_ra blacksmith, caste of non-Aryans, caste of fishermen (Or.); kama_r blacksmith (Mth.); kam.bura_ (Si.)(CDIAL 2898). karmakr.t performing work, skilful in work (AV.); one who has done any work (Pa_n..); workman (Skt.); kam.bul.a doing menial work (Si.)(CDIAL 2891). karmaka_ra doing work without wages (Ka_s'.); karmaka_raka one who does any work (Pa_n..); kammaka_ra hired labourer, workman (Pali); kammaga_ra servant (Pkt.); kamma_riya_ female servant or slave (Pkt.); ka_mar slave (Sv.); kama_ra_ servant (L.); kama_ro slave (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 2888). karmakara workman, hired labourer (MBh.); kammakara (Pali); kammayara servant (Pkt.); kamera_ hired labourer (H.); kam.buranava_ to serve as a menial or slave (Si.)(CDIAL 2887). karmaka_ra_payati causes to work as a servant (Skt.); kama_ra_in.u to cause to work (S.)(CDIAL 2889). ka_rma active, laborious (Pa_n..); kamma connected with work (Pkt.); ka_mu, ka_mo slave (K.); ka_mma~_, ka_ma_ farm servant (P.); ka_ma_, ka_mo servant (WPah.)(CDIAL 3074). ka_rmika engaged in action, name of a partic. Buddhist sect (Ya_j.); Public officer: ka_mi_ public officer (S.); servant (WPah.)(CDIAL 3076). Work: karman act, work (RV.); kamma (Pali); kramam., kramane, kam.ma (As'.); kama (NiDoc.Si.); kamman, kamma, kamma_ (Pkt.); kam work, esp. smith's work (Gypsy); ga_m (Shum.Gaw.Bshk.); kam (Wot..K.); krum (Kal.); korum (obl. kormo)(Kho.); kam work, thing, booty (Gypsy); ka_m (Mai.Tor.Ku.); id. (N.A.B.Mth.Bhoj. H.Marw.G.M.); keram (Sv.); krom (Sh.D..); kom (Sh.); komu (K.); kamu (S.); kamm (L.P.WPah.); ka_ma (Or.Konkan.i); ka_mu (Aw.); ka_mu~ an office, administration (G.); krem, kam, klem (Ash.); s.lam (Ash.Wg.); kram (Dm.Tir.Phal.); la_m, s.am, kur.u_m, ga_m, plo_m (Pas'.)(CDIAL 2892). Fatigue: s'rama labour (RV.); fatigue (S'Br.AV.); sama fatigue (Pali); samam. energy (As'.); sama fatigue, effort (Pkt.); seu~ worry (WPah.); mehe-ya, me_-ya work, service (Si.)(CDIAL 12683). sammati is weary (Pali); s'ramyati is tired (RV.); sammai (Pkt.); s'amu_na to become tired (D..); s.omoiki, s.omo_nu (Sh.)(CDIAL 12693). santa tired (Pali); s'ranta wearied (RV.); sam.ta (Pkt.); s'a_ndn.u to tire (WPah.)(CDIAL 12692). Labourer: ka_mat.h, ka_mi_t. busy, diligent (M.); karmis.t.ha very active (Skt.)(CDIAL 2901). kama_t.hi_, kamet.hi_ beating (P.)(CDIAL 2890). ka_ma_t.t.i labourer, one who works with a hoe, digger of earth (Ta.Ma.); ka_ma_t.i (Te.Ka.); ka_ma_t.e (Tu.); ka_ma_t.hi (M.)(Ta.lex.) kamaveti causes to work, works (NiDoc.); kamma_ve_i earns, works (Pkt.); kama~_wun to work, earn, smelt (metal)(K.); kama_in.u to work, earn, slaughter (S.); kama_van. to work, earn (L.); kama_un.a_ (P.); kuma_n.a_ (WPah.); kamu_n.o to work, cultivate (Ku.); kama_unu (N.); ka_ma_na to earn, shave (B.)[cf. kammai does barber's work (Pkt.); kramoi_ki to use, employ, spend (Sh.)(CDIAL 2894)]; kama_iba to work, earn (Or.); kama_eb to serve, weed (a field)(Mth.); kama_vai earns (OAw.); kama_na_ (H.); kama_vvu~ to help to earn (G.); kama_vu~ to earn (G.); kama_vin.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 2897). kramo_nu hardworking; labourer, farmer (Sh.); kamun.a artisan (Si.)(CDIAL 2893). kra_mi_n low-caste labourer such as a D.om (Sh.); karmi_n.a competent (S'Br.); kami_n. labourer (man or woman)(WPah.); ka_min.a_ labourer (MB.)(CDIAL 2902). kammika overseer (Pali) kammi, kammia industrious; evildoer (Pkt.); i_yema blacksmith (Pr.); i_ma slave (Pr.); kami_ labourer (S.); kammi_ village labourer, menial (L.P.); ka_mi blacksmith (N.); ka_mi_ day labourer (Or.); industrious (H.M.); ka_mia_ servant who works in repayment of interes on money borrowed by his master (Or.); kamiya~_ agricultural labourer who works on advances (Bi.); ka_miya_ labourer (H.); kami artificer (OSi.); kamiya_ worker (Si.); ka_min.i female labourer (Or.); kamyulu farm labourer who lives in (K.); kamilo ant (N.); kamila_ useful (A.)(CDIAL 2900). Coinage, mint: kampat.t.am coinage, coin ((Ta.); kammat.t.am, kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.a id. (Ka.); kammat.i coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236). kampat.t.a-k-ku_t.am mint; kampat.t.a-k-ka_ran- coiner; kampat.t.a- mul.ai die, coining stamp (Ta.lex.) [cf. the nasal in ka~pr.aut. jeweller's crucible made of rags and clay (Bi.)(CDIAL 2874)]. ka~pr.aut., kapr.aut. jeweller's crucible made of rags and clay (Bi.); kapr.aut.i_ wrapping in cloth with wet clay for firing chemicals or drugs, mud cement (H.)[cf. modern compounds: kapar.mit.t.i_ wrapping in cloth and clay (H.); kapad.lep id. (H.)](CDIAL 2874). kapar-mat.t.i clay and cowdung smeared on a crucible (N.)(CDIAL 2871). 2234.Cultivator: kamata the cultivation which the owner carries on with his own stock, but by the labour of another who is paid for his work (Ka.Te.); ka_mat (Upper India); kamatiga, kammatiga the man employed to cultivate with the farming stock of the owner (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) 2101.Land measure: kamma, kamba, kambha (Ka.< ?stambha, skambha) a land measure = 1/100 of a mattaru or nivartana.(IE 8-6.EI 12,19.IEG.) Grant of village for wife: kammattam zemindar's or inamdar's land which he cultivates with his own labourers; grant of a village for a wife's pocket expenses (M.M. 249)(Ta.lex.) kampatta-k-ka_ran- one who owns landed property (Ta.); kammatamu (Te.); kampattam agriculture, cultivation by the owner with his own stock; agricultural land (Ta.); kammatamu (Te.); kampal.am, kampal.atta_n- the Tot.t.iya caste; man of the Tot.t.iya caste (Ta.); kampal.ar men of the Tot.t.iya caste (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) kampat.i plot of land on the outskirts of a village set apart for growing bulrush millet (G.Tn.D. i,159)(Ta.lex.) Inhabitants of an agricultural tract: kampalai agricultural tract (Ta.); kampal.ar inhabitants of an agricultural tract (Ta.); men of Tot.t.iya caste (Ta.lex.) kampal.atta_yi female demon worshipped by the Tot.t.iya caste; kampal.am the tot.t.iya caste (Tan-ippa_. i,339,51); kammava_r a Telugu agricultural caste (Ta.); kammava_ru id. (Te.); kama-t-tor..il tillage, cultivation; kamam cultivation, agriculture; field, farm (Ta.lex.) kampu-kat.t.i one who irrigates (Ce_kkir..a_r. Pu. 4)(Ta.lex.) kampan.a a district (Ka.); kampan.amu an administrative division (Te.): kampala, kampan.a an administrartive division (ASLV); kampan.a (IE 8-4.IEG.) a small territorial unit like a Pargana_. kampanah. (Skt. Mayrhofer)(DEDR 1237). kampal.ar inhabitants of an agricultural tract (Ta.)(DEDR 1237). ka_mpili, ka_mpiliyam name of an ancient kingdom in N. India (ka_mpili-k-ka_van-man-n-an- (Ci_vaka. 611); kampili a city in Northern India (Kalin.. 190, Putup.)(Ta.lex.) ka_mbiru coming from Ka_mbar, epithet of a particular kind of rice; ka_mbar a town in Ca_ndika_ (S.); kampilla a town in Punjab (Pkt.); ka_mpi_la name of a town (VS.); ka_mpilya a city of Pa_n~ca_las (MBh.); ka_mpilla a country in the NW of India (Skt.)(CDIAL 3047). Peasant: ka_p Parja (i.e. speaker of Parji)(Go.); ka~_pu a cultivator, farmer; pertaining to the farmer, rustic (Te.); ka~_pata, ka~_pudi a peasant woman (Te.); ka~_pu~danamu the peasantry (Te.); ka~_puramu residence, abode, domicile (Te.); ka_ppiliyar [cf.ka_mpiliya] a caste of Kanarese cultivators, found chiefly in Madura and Tinnevelly districts, using the title kavan.d.an (Ta.lex.) ka_pu a cultivator, farmer; pertaining to the farmer, rustic (Te.); ka_p Parja (i.e.speaker of Parji)(Go.); ga_mpa, ga_n.pa a rustic; a simpleton, vulgar or vile man (Ka.)(DEDR 1456). Fisherman; toddy-drawer: kabbila huntsman, fowler, rustic; kabbiliga, kabbeya boatman, fisherman (Ka.); kabbili toddy-drawer; gamal.l.ava~_d.u man of the toddy-drawer caste; gavun.d.lava~_d.u a toddy-drawer (Te.)(DEDR 1227). Agriculture: kamam cultivation, agriculture; field, farm (Ta.); cf. karman (Skt.); kamampulam lands and fields (Ta.); kamava_ram share of the produce of land given in return for agricultural implements loaned for its cultivation (Ta.lex.) kaman, khamna forest; kamna t.a_li nilgai (Go.); kaman forest (Pe.); kaman. id. (Mand..); kambor.i, kamboni forest, jungle (Kui); kamn.a park, grove; forest (Kuwi); kambare uncultivated ground (Malt.)(DEDR 1228). Female demon: kampalai-ma_ri female demon worshipped especially by Veddahs; termagant, scold (Ta.lex.) 2102.Image: pillar, post: kampam < khamba (Pkt.) post, pillar; lamp-stand, candlestick; kampu pole for measuring wet lands = 2ft. + 1 span (Ta.lex.) kampu post for tying elephants; stake (Te_va_. 1092,4); kambu id. (Te.); kampu pole, rod, stick (I_t.u, 4,1, Pra.); pole for measuring wet lands = 2 ft. + 1 span (Ta.lex.) kha~_bn.i_ small post (M.); kha_mn.iyu~ one of the ropes with which the bucket is let down in a well (i.e. from the post?)(G.); khaman.a pit, hole, water-channel, lowland at foot of mountain (Or.); kha_mn.u~ small depression to stand round-bottomed vessel in, basin at root of a tree for water (G.)(CDIAL 13644). iskow peg (Kal.Kho.)(CDIAL 13638). skambha prop, pillar (RV.); khambha prop (Pali); kham.bha post, pillar (Pkt.); is'kyop, us'kob bridge (Pr.); khabba_, khambba_ stake forming fulcrum for oar (L.); khambh, khambha_, khammha_ wooden prop, post (P.); kham a part of the yoke of a plough (WPah.); kha_mba_ beam, pier (WPah.); pillar, post (B.); kha_mo a support (Ku.); kha_m pillar (of wood or bricks)(Ku.); post, stake (B.); post, pillar, mast (H.); pillar (G.); kha_ma_ post of brick-crushing machine (Bi.); kha~_bo pillar, post (N.); kha_mhi_ support of betel-cage roof (Bi.); khamhiya_ wooden pillar supporting roof (Bi.); kha_mh, kha_mhi_ pillar, post (Mth.); khamha_ rudder-post (Mth.); khambha_ pillar (Bhoj.OAw,); khambhiya_ prop (Bhoj.); kha_m.bhe pillars (OAw.); khambh pillar, pole (H.); kha~_bhi, kha~_bi post (G.); kha~_b (M.); kha_mbho, kha_mbo (Konkan.i); kap (Si.)(CDIAL 13639). X stha_n.u obstacle, stump (RV.); tree-root, lopped tree (AV.); kha_n.u post, stump, lopped tree (Pkt.); khan.n.u, khan.n.ua small post, peg (Pkt.); kan.u pillar (OSi.); kanu-va post, pile (Si.); t.ha_n.u lopped tree, post (Pkt.); t.ha_nu clump of bamboos (N.); tha_n.u stump of tree, pollard (Or.)(CDIAL 13750). kamha_r., kamhar., kamhan.d.a_ wooden frame suspended from roof which drives home the thread in a loom (Bi.)(CDIAL 13642). Side Scan Sonar images showing possible archaeological settlements and river valleys in the Gulf of Khambat, ca. 9000 BP [plate2.JPG (80058 bytes)] [plate3.JPG (86883 bytes)] [sidescan2.JPG (91118 bytes)] A bathing facility? (41m X Geometrical formations (97m XBuried settlements (73m X 25m) 24m) 53m) [sidescan8.JPG (84739 bytes)] [sidescan4.JPG (104283 bytes)] [sidescan7.JPG (93868 bytes)] Patterns which may be Buried structure (44m X 19m) Buried settlements interpreted as buried settlements [plate4.JPG (74432 bytes)] [sidescan3.JPG (85326 bytes)] Sub-bottom profile: discontinuities indicate Suspected buried settlements possible presence of objects (73m X 53m) (man-made?) [sidescan6.JPG (73372 bytes)] [sidescan5.JPG (79899 bytes)] River valley? River valley? Copyright, 2002. All scan images are copyright of the National Institute of Ocean Technology, India. Ancient inscriptions found in Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex Image of a seated person on a tablet in bas relief found in Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex That the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC), with early origins dated to ca. 9000 years Before Present, is a precursor of the Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization is dramatically confirmed by a triangular tablet with an image engraved in bas relief. Many finds which are characteristic of the so-called pre-Harappan artefacts include the finds such as: a bathing complex, structures of multi-storeyed buildings comparable to those found at Mohenjodaro, use of gabar bands to divert water from river channels -- a feature common along the River Sindhu in the Sind region --, triangular cakes, some triangular cakes with circles drilled in, long cylindrical and perforated stone beads and many types of semi-precious stone beads. What are referred to ancient inscriptions in the exhibits kept at the National Institute of Ocean Technology complex in IIT Campus, Chennai are discussed. Image of a seated person often referred to as a yogic posture is a remarkable motif on some inscribed objects. The image is also depicted on tablets carved in bas-relief at Harappa as confirmed by the 1998 finds at Harappa by Kenoyer and Meadow. Two remarkable finds of the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC); these may constitute the world's oldest inscriptions found so far and perhaps also the oldest writing system of the world dated to ca. 9000 years Before Present: One is a triangular sandstone tablet, shaped like an equilateral triangle about 6" at the base. At the apex, the head-dress of a seated person is faintly visible, since the slab is weathered by the sea waters; the entire composition is in carved in bas-relief. The orthography of the weathered slab is comparable to similar seated persons depicted on some inscribed objects discovered at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. On another smaller triangular tablet a sign in bas-relief is faintly visible. The sign is comparable to a triangle with horizontal lines.The sign is comparable to Sign 204 on some inscribed objects. [Image] [Image] h176A [Image] h176B [Image]h176bb [Image]4303 Tablet in bas-relief h176a Person standing at the centre between a two-tiered structure at R., and a short-horned bull (bison) standing near a trident-headed post at L. h176b From R.—a tiger (?); a seated, pig-tailed person on a platform; flanked on either side by a person seated on a tree with a tiger, below, looking back. A hare (or goat?) is seen near the platform. [Image]m0304B [Image]m0304AC Pict-81: Person (with three visible faces) wearing bangles and armlets seated on a platform (with an antelope looking backwards) and surrounded by five animals: rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope, tiger and elephant. [Image]2420 [Image]m0305AC [Image]2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles and armlets. [Image]m0453At [Image]m453BC [Image]1629 Pict-82 Person seated on a pedestal flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant and a hooded serpent rearing up. [Image] m1181Acolour [Image]2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated on a hoofed platform [Image] [Image] Harappa. Two tablets. Seated figure or deity with reed house or shrine at one side. Left: H95-2524; Right: H95-2487. Harappa. Planoconvex molded tablet found on Mound ET. A. Reverse. a female deity battling two tigers and standing above an elephant and below a six-spoked wheel; b. Obverse. A person spearing with a barbed spear a buffalo in front of a seated horned deity wearing bangles and with a plumed headdress. The person presses his foot down the buffalo"s head. An alligator with a narrow snout is on the top register. "We have found two other broken tablets at Harappa that appear to have been made from the same mold that was used to create the scene of a deity battling two tigers and standing above an elephant. One was found in a room located on the southern slope of Mount ET in 1996 and another example comes from excavations on Mound F in the 1930s. However, the flat obverse of both of these broken tablets does not show the spearing of a buffalo, rather it depicts the more well-known scene showing a tiger looking back over its shoulder at a person sitting on the branch of a tree. Several other flat or twisted rectangular terracotta tablets found at Harappa combine these two narrative scenes of a figure strangling two tigers on one side of a tablet, and the tiger looking back over its shoulder at a figure in a tree on the other side." [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 115]. Harappa. A series of small tablets. A. man fighting a short-horned bull; a small plant with six branches; b. se [Image] ated figure in yogic posture with arms resting on knees; both arms covered with bangles; traces of a horned headdress and long hair are visible on some impressions; a second individual, also with long hair and wearing bangles, sits on a short stool; ; c. standing deity with horned headdress with a curved branch with three projecting leaves; bangles visible on both arms; d. inscription with six signs; the first sign appears to be some form of an animal; the last shows a person. http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/khambat/khambat01.htm