Nyaya

The Philosophy of Logic and Reasoning

The Nyaya system of philosophy was established by the sage
Gotama. As he was also known as Aksapada, this system is also
sometimes referred to as the Aksapada system. Nyaya philosophy is
primarily concerned with the conditions of correct knowledge and
the means of receiving this knowledge. Nyaya is predominantly
based on reasoning and logic and therefore is also known as Nyaya
Vidya or Tarka Sastra--`the science of logic and reasoning.',
Because this system analyzes the nature and source of knowledge
and its validity and nonvalidity, it is also referred to as
Anviksiki, which means `the science of critical study.' Using
systematic reasoning, this school of philosophy develops
and uses a concrete method of discriminating valid knowledge from
invalid knowledge.

This philosophy asserts that obtaining valid knowledge of the
external world and its relationship with the mind and self is the
only way to attain liberation. If one masters the logical
techniques of reasoning and assiduously applies these in his
daily life, he will rid himself of all suffering. Thus, the
methods and conditions of determining true knowledge are not the
final goal of Nyaya philosophy; logical criticism is viewed only
as an instrument that enables one to discriminate valid from
invalid knowledge. The ultimate goal of Nyaya philosophy, like
that of the other systems of Indian philosophy, is libera-
tion--the absolute cessation of pain and suffering. Nyaya is a
philosophy of life, even though it is mainly concerned with the
study of logic and epistemology.

The common aims of all six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy
are to describe the nature of the external world and its relat-
ionship to the individual, to discuss the metaphysical aspects of
ultimate Reality, and to state the goal of life and the means for
attaining this goal. In this attempt, all the systems of Indian
philosophy divide their course of study into two major cate-
gories: the study of unmanifested reality, and the study of
manifest reality. In Nyaya philosophy, both aspects of reality
are studied under sixteen major divisions, called padarthas (see
chart on next page). These sixteen philosophical divisions are:
pramana, the sources of knowledge; prameya, the object of
knowledge; samsaya, doubt or the state of uncertainty; prayojana,
the aim; drstanta, example; siddhanta, doctrine; ayayava, the
constituents of inference; tarka, hypothetical argument; nirnaya.
conclusion; badha, discussion; jalpa, wrangling; vitanda,
irrational argument; hetvabhasa, specious reasoning; chala,
unfair reply; jati, generality based on a false analogy; and
nigrahsthana, the grounds for defeat. The subjects discussed under
pramana, the source of knowledge, are the most important and the
most thoroughly and profoundly expounded of all the divisions.
For this reason, pramana will be explained in detail after the
other fifteen divisions of studying reality have been described.
Prameya--The Object of Knowledge

Prameya may be translated as `that which is knowable,' or `the
object of true knowledge.' The word prameya is derived from the
Sanskrit word prama meaning `buddhi' or `cognition.' That >>>

***[TABLE]***
Nyaya's Sixteen Divisions (Padarthas) of Studying Reality
Pramana, four sources of valid knowledge (prama):
     Perception (pratyaksa)
          Ordinary (laukika)
          Indeterminate (nirvikalpa)
          Extraordinary (alaukika)
               Classes (samanyalaksana)
               Association (jnanalaksana)
               Intuition (yogaja)
     Inference (anumana)
          Statements (pratijna)
          Reason (hetu)
          Example (udaharana)
          Universal proposition (upanaya)
          Conclusion (nigamana)
     Comparison (upamana)
     Testimony (sabda)
Prameya, twelve objects of knowledge:
     Atman, the body, the five senses, the objects of the
     senses, cognition, mind. activity, mental defects (attach-
     ment, hatred, and infatuation), reb