6 Systems of Vedic Philosophy Yoga -- first of 3 parts Yoga: Self-Discipline for Self-Realization The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj (`to unite'). The Yoga system provides a methodology for linking up individual consciousness with the Supreme Consciousness. There are various schools of Yoga, among which Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga, and Kundalini Yoga are especially well known. The yoga system that is counted as one of the six systems of Vedic philosophy is the Patanjala Yoga system, which will be reviewed here. This school of Yoga, also known as astanga-yoga (the yoga of eight parts), is closely allied to Samkhya philosophy. Indeed, astanga-yoga is the practical application of Samkhya philosophy for the attainment of liberation. It is called Patanjala Yoga because it was systematized by the sage Patanjali. His work is known as Patanjala Yoga Sutra. There are various commentaries on this text, Vyasa's being the most ancient and profound. This Yoga system attempts to explain the nature of mind, its modifications, impediments to growth, afflictions, and the method for attaining what is described as the highest goal of life: kaivalya (absoluteness). The Yogic View of Mind According to Patanjali, Yoga is the control of the modifications of the subtle mental body. He proposes that the mental body leads a person to bondage or to liberation, that most human problems are mental, and that the only remedy to solve them is mental discipline. Among all human instruments that serves one in attaining one's goals, the mental body is the finest. The mental body is also the link between consciousness and the gross physical body. For these reasons, Patanjali places great emphasis on the study of the mental body. His Yoga system attempts to provide all possible means to control the mental body's modifications and unfold its great power for higher attainment. <~>Theoretically, the Yoga system is based on the same tenets as Samkhya philosophy, and it also incorporates some of the teachings of Vedanta. In Samkhya philosophy, the mental body is defined in terms of three functions or parts (mind, intelligence and false ego), but in Vedanta philosophy the mental body is divided into four parts (mind, intelligence, false ego and citta or conditioned consciousness, the storehouse of memories). In Yoga, however, the mental body is equated with the mind, and the intelligence and false ego are considered to be aspects of that mind. Citta denotes all the fluctuating and changing phenomena of the mind. According to Yoga, the mind is like a vast lake, on the surface of which arise many different kinds of waves. Deep within, the mind is always calm and tranquil. But one's thought patterns stir it into activity and prevent it from realizing its own true nature. These thought patterns are the waves appearing and disappearing on the surface of the lake of the mind. Depending on the size, strength, and speed of the waves, the inner state of the lake is obscured to a greater or lesser degree. The more one is able to calm one's thought patterns, the more the inner state of the mind is unveiled. It is not very difficult to calm down the waves of thought patterns on the surface of the lake of mind, but it is very difficult to calm down those unrhythmic and destructive waves of thought patterns that arise from the bottom. Memories are like time bombs buried in the lake bed of mind that explode at certain times and disturb the entire lake. <~>There are two main sources for the arising waves of thoughts: sense perceptions and memories. When the waves of a lake are stilled and the water is clear, one can look deep down and see the bottom of the lake. Likewise when one's thought patterns are quieted, one can see one's innermost potentials hidden deep within the mind. Because the mind is an evolute of Prakrti (see the previous chapter on Samkhya philosophy), it is composed of the elements of sattva, rajas, and tamas. The relative proportions of these three qualities determine the different states of citta, conditioned consciousness. The turmoil caused by the interaction of the gunas is responsible for the arising thought patterns in the mind. Five Stages of Mind The mind is described in five stages, depending on the degree of its transparency: disturbed (ksipta); stupefied (mudha); restless (viksipta); one-pointed (ekagra); and well-controlled (niruddha). The predominance of rajas and tamas causes the mind to be disturbed (ksipta). Because of the predominance of rajas, the mind becomes hyperactive; because of the predominance of tamas, it loses its quality of discrimination. Thus it flits from one object to another without resting on any. It is constantly disturbed by external stimuli, but it does not know how to discriminate what is beneficial from that which is useless. In the second stage (mudha), the mind is dominated by tamas, which is characterized by inertia, vice, ignorance, lethargy, and sleep. In this state, mind is so sluggish that it loses its capability to think proper]y and becomes negative and dull. In the restless stage (viksipta), there is a predominance of rajas. In this state, the mind runs from one object to another but never stays anywhere consistently. This is an advanced stage of the disturbed mind. <~>These first three stages of mind are negative and act as impediments in the path of growth and exploration. At this level, one experiences pain and misery and all kinds of unpleasant emotions, but the next two stages are more calm and peaceful. All the modifications are found in the earlier three stages. In the one pointed and well-controlled states there are no modifications at all. In the one-pointed state of mind (ekagra), there is a predominance of sattva, the light aspect of Prakrti. This is a tranquil state near to complete stillness in which the real nature of things is revealed. This fourth state is conducive to concentration, and the aim of the Yoga system is to develop or to maintain this state of mind for as long and as consistently as possible. In the well-controled state of mind (niruddha), there is no disturbance at all but a pure manifestation of sattvic energy. In this state, consciousness reflects its purity and entirety in the mirror of mind, and one becomes capable of exploring one's true nature. Only the last two states of mind are positive and helpful for meditation, and many yogic practices are designed to help one attain these states. When all the modifications cease and the state of stillness is acquired, then Purusa (Pure Consciousness) sees its real nature reflecting from the screen of the mind. The Modifications of the Mind The yoga system categorizes the modifications of mind into five classes: valid cognition, invalid cognition, verbal cognition, sleep, and memory. All thoughts, emotions, and mental behaviors fall into one of these five categories, which are further divided into two major types: those that cause afflictions (klista) and those that do not cause afflictions (aklista). False cognition, verbal cognition and sleep always cause afflictions and are in themselves afflictions: they are harmful modifications. Valid cognition and memories (depending on their nature) are not considered to be causes of affliction and are not harmful for meditation. <~>The sources of valid cognition are perception, inference, and authoritative testimony, which have already been described in detail in the Samkhya chapter. False cognition is ignorance (avidya). Ignorance is mistaking the non-eternal for the eternal, the impure for the pure, misery for happiness, and the non self for the Self. It is the modification of mind that is the mother of the klesas, or afflictions. Ignorance has four offshoots: asmita, which is generally defined as I-am-ness; raga, attachment or addiction, which is the desire to prolong or repeat pleasurable experiences; dvesa, hatred or aversion, which is the desire to avoid unpleasurable experiences; and abhinivesa, fear of death, which is the urge of self-preservation. <~>Verbal cognition is the attempt to grasp something that actually does not exist but is one's own projection. An example of such a projection is the fantasy of marrying a gossamer-winged fairy and together flying through the empyrean to the most wondrous paradise. All such fantasies are mere verbal cognition that do not correspond to facts and only cause the mind to fluctuate. Sleep is a modification of mind in which one's relationship with the external world is cut off. One might ask: If sleep is a modification of mind, aren't the dreaming and waking states also accepted as modifications? The answer would be no; the dreaming state is occupied with verbal cognition, and the waking state is occupied mainly with valid cognition and invalid cognition. Memory, the fifth and final mental modification, is the recall of impressions stored in the mind. Overcoming the Modifications The modifications of the mind are caused by nine conditions or impediments, namely sickness, incompetence, doubt, delusion, sloth, nonabstention, confusion, nonattainment of the desired state, and instability in an attained state. These impediments disturb the mind and produce sorrow, dejection, restlessness, and an unrhythmic breathing pattern. Yoga provides a method for overcoming these problems and controlling the modifications of the mind. Patanjali states that the mind and its modifications can be controlled through practice (abhyasa) and detachment (vairagya). The mind is said to be like a river that flows between two banks. One bank is positive and is the basis for liberation, while the other bank is negative and is the basis for indiscrimination and infatuations with sense objects. When the current of the river is controlled by practice and detachment, it tends to flow toward the side of liberation. Abhyasa, practice, means a particular type of effort or technique through which the mind maintains stillness. Practice does not mean engaging in mental gymnastics; it is, rather, sincere effort for maintaining steadiness of the mind. Perfection in practice is attained through sincerity and persistence. Methods of practice will be discussed in conjunction with the discussion of the eight limbs of Yoga. Vairagya, detachment or dispassion, does not mean to renounce the world or to withdraw oneself from one's environment; rather it means to have no expectations from external objects. Detachment means to eliminate identification with the evolutes of nature and to understand oneself as pure Self, as a self-illuminating conscious being. Patanjali also describes another method, called kriya yoga, to help students attain a higher state of consciousness while dealing with a restless mind. Kriya yoga, which means the yoga of purification, is a threefold discipline composed of the practice of austerity, study of the scriptures, and surrender to God. By practicing the path of kriya yoga, students learn to perform their duties skillfully and selflessly while dedicating the fruits of their actions to the Supreme. (Text 13659) Yoga, part 2 of 3 parts The Eightfold Path of Yoga The eight components (asta-anga) of this yoga system (see chart) are: restraints (yamas); observances (niyamas); posture (asana); breath control (pranayama); sense withdrawal (pratyahara); concentration (dharana); meditation (dhyana); and spiritual absorption (samadhi). ***CHART*** The Eight Limbs of Patanjala Yoga Yamas (five restraints): nonhurting (ahimsa) nonlying (satya) nonstealing (asteya) sensory control (brahmacarya) nonpossessiveness (aparigraha) Niyamas (five observances): purity (sauca) contentment (santosa) austerity (tapas) study (svadhyaya) [austerity, study, surrender = Kriya Yoga] surrender (Isvara pranidhana) Asana (yoga postures) Pranayama (control of vital force: prana, apana, samana, udana, vyana) [From Yamas to Pranayama = Hatha Yoga] Pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) Dharana (concentration) Dhyana (meditation) [Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi = samyama] Samadhi (spiritual absorption) <~>Success in Yoga requires a one-pointed and well-controlled mind free from all worldly desires. Attachment to wordly objects is the main cause of and is the direct evolute of ignorance, which produces all the modifications of the mind. According to Patanjala yoga, attachment to world objects is the archenemy of the individual who wants to understand his inner self. The necessary qualities and conditions for reaching the subtler levels of consciousness include will power, discrimination, full control of the mind, conscious direction of one's potentials toward the desired end, a firm resolution to turn away from all worldly attachments, determination to obliterate the ego, control over all inharmonious processes, and constant awareness of the ultimate goal. Yama--Restraints To fulfill the above conditions, Patanjala Yoga begins by prescribing an ethical code designed to calm one's relationship with oneself and others. The first two limbs of Patanjala Yoga--the yamas and niyamas--consist of ten commitments that constitute this code. The five yamas (restraints) are nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), nonstealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya), and nonpossessiveness (aparigraha). They replace animalistic urges with saintly virtues and thus break the four legs of adharma (sinful life), which stands on meat-eating (counteracted by ahimsa), illicit sex (counteracted by celibacy outside of procreation within marriage), gambling (counteracted by truthfulness) and intoxication (counteracted by self- restraint). Ahimsa Ahimsa literally means `non injury' or `non-violence'. Generally, one thinks of nonviolence as merely restraining from the physical act of violence, but in Yoga scriptures nonviolence is to be practiced in thought, speech, and action. Satya According to Patanjala Yoga, one should be truthful to oneself and to others in thought, speech, and action. The Yoga student is taught to speak what he thinks and to do what he says. Sometimes one lies without awareness or sometimes just for fun or for the sake of creating gossip. These simple lies are like seeds that create habits that will one day become one's nature. Thus one cannot even trust in himself because of his untruthful nature. The day a person becomes totally truthful, his whole life becomes successful and whatever he says or thinks comes true. He gains inner strength through which he overcomes all fear in his life. Asteya Asteya, nonstealing, provides a great opportunity for the practice of nonattachment and nonpossessiveness. Actually, nonstealing is a negative explanation of contentment, because when one is self-satisfied he is not tempted to desire others' things. Such a person considers whatever he has as sufficient and he does not allow himself to be enslaved by lust and greediness in order to attain desired objects by illegitimate means. The Yoga system advises that nonstealing be practiced mentally, verbally, and physically. An honest author writes original thoughts, and if some material is borrowed from others, the author honestly and respectfully gives references. That is an example of nonstealing at the thought level. In the same way, nonstealing practiced at every level of the personality helps maintain purity of life, and purity of life allows one to shine and grow in all dimensions. Brahmacarya Brahmacarya literally means `to act in Brahman'. One whose life's actions are always executed in the consciousness of `I am not the body' is called a brahmacari. The word brahmacarya is commonly translated as `sexual abstinence', but celibacy is only a partial explanation of this word. Sexual continence in itself is not the goal; the goal is to control the senses in order to achieve deeper levels of inner awareness. Patanjala Yoga takes brahmacarya in a wider sense to mean selectively performing only those activities that are helpful in achieving the highest goal of life. Brahmacarya is possible only when the mind is free from all sensuous desires, especially the sexual urge, which is the most powerful and which can be most destructive if not directed and channeled properly. Illicit sexual activity dissipates vital energy that is to be utilized for the attainment of higher consciousness. For achieving this goal, the Yoga system advises one to organize all his sensory forces and to utilize them in a proper and beneficial way. It teaches control of sensual cravings in order to attain that inner peace and happiness that is greater than all transient bodily pleasures. Uncontrolled senses weaken the mind, and a weakened mind has no capacity to concentrate in one direction or on one object. A person with a mind weakened by lust fails to think properly, to speak properly, or to act properly. For higher attainment, one therefore has to withdraw his energies from the petty charms and temptations of sensory objects and convert the flow of the life force toward higher consciousness. Aparigraha Aparigraha, nonpossessiveness, is generally misunderstood to mean denying oneself all material possessions, but the word actually indicates an inward attitude rather than an outward behavior. The feeling of possessiveness is an expression of dissatisfaction, insecurity, attachment, and greed. One who strives his whole life to gain more and more worldly objects is never satisfied because that desire can never be quenched. One who is constantly greedy for more forgets that it is impossible to eat more than the stomach can holds to sleep on more ground than the body covers, or to wear more clothes than the body requires. Whatever one possesses that exceeds the essential requirements becomes a burden, and instead of enjoying it one suffers in watching and taking care of it. A person who desires more than that which is required is like a thief who covets that which belongs to others. Nonpossessiveness does not mean that one should not plan for the future or that one should give away all one's money; it simply means that one should not be attached to what he has. An attitude of possessiveness excludes one from all that one does not have, but the practice of nonpossessiveness expands one's personality, and one acquires more than he has mentally renounced. Niyamas--Observances The five niyamas regulate one's habits and organize the personality. They consist of purity (sauca), contentment (santosa), austerity (tapas), self- study (svadhyaya), and surrender to the Supreme Being (Isvara pranidhana). These observances allow a person to be strong physically, mentally, and spiritually. Sauca In the context of Yoga science, sauca refers to both physical and mental purity. Physical purity protects the body from diseases. and mental purity presents mental energy from being dissipated. Physical purity can be achieved easily, but one has to pay close attention to purity of mind, which depends on spiritual thinking, mindfulness, and discrimination. The Yoga system places great emphasis on developing purity of the mind because concentration and inward exploration are impossible without it and because psychosomatic disease and emotional disturbance result from its absence. Santosa Santosa, contentment, is a mental state in which even a beggar can live like a king. It is one's own desires that make one a mental beggar and keep one from being tranquil within. Contentment does not mean one should be passive or inactive, for practice of contentment must be coordinated with selfless action. Tapas The word tapas literally means the 'generation of heat'. A yogi who burns with the zeal for austerity is able to generate heat from within his body that keeps him warm and fit even in the icy wastes of the Himalayas. Therefore tapas is not to be understood as self-torture. The Bhagavad Gita clearly states that Yoga is not for one who indulges the flesh nor for one who tortures it. One who is a real yogi enthusiastically takes up a life of healthy asceticism. He may thus gradually unlock mystical powers within himself. By these powers, the yogi is able to easily withstand intense cold or to go for long periods of time without eating, drinking or even breathing. But until such powers are unlocked, it is useless to try to imitate the accomplishments of tapas. Actually, supernatural powers are not the goal of tapas. The real goal is the development of a sincere enthusiasm for a life of austerity. Svadhyaya Svadyaya includes studying the scriptures, hearing from saints and sages, and observing the lessons of experience through the eyes of spiritual revalation. Proper svadyaya requires discrimination, which means neither blind acceptance nor critical analysis of the sources of knowledge. One should glean the essence of the transcendental teachings and utilize this essence for practical advancement. Without discrimination, one may become confused by the apparent contradictions among different teachings from various scriptures and authorities. Therefore proper study is a skill that must be learned from one who has mastered the scriptures. Isvara pranidhana Isvara pranidhana, surrender to the Supreme Being, is the best method for protecting oneself from the dangers of attachment, false identification, and the idea of `I am the doer'. Surrender is possible through cultivation of faith and devotion to the Lord within the heart. Asana--Posture Asanas, physical postures, ensure physical health and mental harmony. They are used in conjunction with the yamas and niyamas and the other limbs of Patanjala yoga, for without the other elements of the system, mere physical exercise cannot provide the desired benefits. Nowadays, because many so-called students of Yoga do not understand the importance of mastering the yamas and niyamas before attempting the asanas, the yogic postures have largely degenerated into mere physical culture. The Yoga asanas are not means of improving physical beauty but are important prerequisites for the attainment of the higher goals of this Yoga system. The highest aim of Yoga is to attain samadhi. The meditative postures enable one to sit comfortably and steadily for a long time with the head, neck, and trunk properly aligned so that breathing may be regulated, the mind may be withdrawn from the senses, the mind may be concentrated within, and samadhi (unbroken trance) may at last be attained. <~>The postures are broadly divided into two major categories: postures for physical well-being and postures for meditation. The commentators on Patanjali's sutras mention only a few postures that are helpful in meditation, but later Yoga scriptures describe a complete science of postures for physical and mental well-being. There are eighty-four classical postures, but only four of these are suggested for the practice of meditation. These are sukhasana (the easy pose), svastikasana (the auspicious pose), padmasana (the lotus pose), and siddhasana (the accomplished pose). In all meditative postures, the emphasis is on keeping the head, neck, and trunk straight. The spine being thus aligned provides steadiness and comfort in the posture and minimizes the consumption of oxygen. Pranayama--Control of the Vital Force After practicing physical exercises, the student becomes aware of a deeper level of personality--prana, the life force--functioning in the body. The word prana is derived from the Sanskrit root ana and the prefix pra. Ana means `to animate or vibrate', and pra means `first unit'. Thus the word prana means `the first unit of energy'. Whatever animates or moves is an expression of prana--the life force. All the forces in the world, including individual beings. are different manifestations or expressions of this life force. <~>This vital force animates all the energies involved in the physical and mental processes, and thus it is prana that sustains and activates the body and mind. Prana is the basic principle underlying all biophysical functions. Later writings of Yoga explain a highly advanced science of prana, which yogis claim establishes the link between body and mind and vitalizes both. Because the breath is the grossest manifestation of this vital function, the science of prana is also called the science of breath. Continuous regulation of the breath strengthens the nervous system and harmonizes all mental activities. <~>Yoga texts say that prana is the creator of all substances and the basis of all functions. The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad says that the thread of prana (vayu) runs through and holds together the whole universe. This thread is the cause of the creation, sustenance, and destruction of all substances in the world. The same life force on which humankind depends also sustains the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Prana sustains bodily functions as the subtle airs, which are energies of the subtle body that are controlled by the devas (demigods). Thus prana is the link between human beings and the controllers of the universe. The breath is the thread through which prana travels from the cosmos to the individual and from the individual to the cosmos. <~>Depending on its function in different organs, prana is divided into ten types of subtle airs. The ten pranas are prana, upana, samana, udana vyana, naga, kurma, krkala, devadatta, and dhananjaya. Of these ten, the first five are of most importance to the practice of Patanjala Yoga. Prana Prana here is used to designate a specific type of prana, the vital force of inspiration. In this context the word prana (pra + ana) means `that which draws in or takes in'. The life force that receives the fresh cosmic vitality from the atmosphere activating the diaphragm, lungs, and nostrils, is called prana. The head, mouth, nostrils, chest (heart and lungs), navel, and big toes are said to be the main centers of prana. This important vital force resides in the brain and governs the functions of the senses and the process of thinking. Certain physical activities--such as the ability of the cerebrum to receive the sensations of smell, sound, taste, touch, and vision, the function of the cranial nerves, and the power that governs all mental activities--are the functions of prana. Primitive instincts, emotions, intelligence, self-control, memory, concentration, and the power of judgment or discrimination are manifestations of prana. As long as prana is in its normal state, all the organs function properly. Bodily toxins, intoxicants, malnutrition, the aging process, frustration, fatigue, restlessness, and physical and mental shocks disturb the vital force. When the vitality of the mind starts to decay due to such conditions, then higher abilities such as intelligence, memory, concentration, discrimination, and patience start to diminish, and the lower instincts or emotions become predominant. <~>In the cosmos and in the body there is a continuous flow of solar and lunar energy, also referred to in Yoga texts as positive and negative energy, as pitta and kappa, bile and phlegm, fire and water, light and darkness, male and female, and so on. When prana is predominated by solar energy, it is active and the right nostril is open. But when lunar energy predominates, it is passive and the left nostril is open. The flow of prana through the right or the left nostril provides specific conditions and changes in mood and behavior. Apana Apana is the excretory vital force. Expulsive movements occurring in the bowels, bladder, uterus, seminal glands, and pores during defecation, urination, menstruation, ejaculation, perspiration, and all other kinds of excretions are due to the function of apana. The reproductive organs, anus, thighs, ribs, root of the navel, and the abdomen are said to be the abode of apana. When the excretory vital force, which functions through the thoracic and abdominal muscles, is disturbed, then symptoms such as sneezing, asthma, croup, or hiccups are observed. Samana Samana is the digestive and assimilating force that makes food suitable for absorption and then assimilates it. This vital force is seen in the entire body, not just in the digestive system. Because of samana's presence in the skin, vitamin D can be absorbed from the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The region between the heart and the navel center is predominantly involved in the absorption and digestion of food, and this part of the body is therefore considered to be the main center of this vital force. This vital force is responsible for growth and nourishment. Abnormalities of the assimilating vital force result in nervous diarrhea, dyspepsia (impaired digestion), intestinal colic, spasmodic or nervous retention of urine, constipation, and the like. Udana Udana means `energy that uplifts'. It is the force that causes contraction in the thoracic muscles, thereby pushing air out through the vocal cords. It is, therefore, the main cause of the production of sound. All physical activities that require effort and strength depend on this vital force. It is said to be situated in the larynx, the upper part of the pelvis, all the joints, and the feet and hands. Vyana Vyana is the contractile vital force. All rhythmic or nonrhythmic contractions take place because of this vital force. It pervades the whole body and governs the process of relaxing and contracting the voluntary and involuntary muscles. This force also governs movements of the ligaments and sends sensory and motor impulses through the nervous tissues. It is involved in the opening and closing of the eyes as well as the opening and closing of the glottis. The ears, eyes, neck, ankles, nose, and throat are said to be the main centers of this vital force in the body. Fibrosis, sclerosis, atrophy, and pain in muscular and nervous tissues are the result of abnormalities in the contractile vital force. <~>Food and breath are the main vehicles through which prana enters the body. Food contains a grosser quality of prana than does the breath; one can live for a few days without food, but without breath one cannot function normally for even a minute. This is the reason that the Yoga system places so much importance on the science of breath. The regulation of the movement of the lungs is the most effective process for cleansing and vitalizing the human system. It purifies and strengthens the nervous system, which coordinates all the other systems in the body. Yogis have developed a most intricate and deep science related to the nervous and circulatory systems, but this science goes beyond the mere study of nerves, veins, and arteries. The science of breath is related to subtle energy channels called nadis. According to yogis, the body is essentially a field of energy, but only a very small part of that energy is utilized, and so a great part of it remains dormant. With the help of pranayama (the science of prana), however, a student of Yoga can unveil that energy field, expand it, and channel it to explore higher states of consciousness. Yogi texts say, `One who knows prana knows the Veda's highest knowledge', and one of the Upanisads proclaims that prana is Brahman. The science of prana and the science of breath are thus of central importance in the Yoga system. <~>According to Patanjali, pranayama means to refine and regulate the flow of inhalation and exhalation. When one can breathe deeply and noiselessly without jerks or pauses, one can allow one's prana to expand and to be awakened for higher attainments. Patanjali does not advise the practice of pranayama until one has achieved a still and comfortable posture. Postures that remove physical tension and provide stillness are therefore the prerequisites to pranayama. Patanjali lists four kinds of pranayama: external (bahya vrtti), in which the flow of prank is controlled during the exhalation; internal (abhyantara vrtti), in which the flow of prana is controlled during inhalation; and intermediate (bahya-bhy-antara-visayaksepi) in which the other two pranayamas are refined, and the fourth (caturtha), in which pranayama is transcended. The first three pranayamas must be regulated within space and time, but the fourth pranayama is highly advanced and transcends these limitations. When the external and internal pranayamas become very subtle, then, because of intense concentration in a perfect, relayed state, one loses awareness of time and space, and thus the fourth pranayama happens automatically. In this pranayama, the breath becomes so fine and subtle that an ordinary breathing movement cannot be observed. Without practical instruction from a competent teacher, it is not possible to understand and apply this method of pranayama successfully. The practice of pranayama prepares fertile ground for concentration. The first four stages of Yoga discussed thus far--that is, yama, niyama, asana, and prana- yama--are sometimes collectively known as Hatha Yoga. (Text 16782) Yoga -- Part 3 of 3 parts Pratyahara--Withdrawal of the Senses The fifth limb of Yoga is pratyahara, the withdrawal or control of the senses. In outward activities the mind contacts external objects through the five senses of sight, hearing touch, taste, and smell. The interaction of the senses with their objects is like the blowing wind that disturbs the surface of the lake of mind and causes waves to arise. Withdrawal of the senses is a technique through which a student acquires the ability to voluntarily draw his attention inward and keep his mind from distractions. <~>Patanjali defines pratyahara as the withdrawal of the senses from their objects and their establishment in the mind. The senses are constant]y wandering from one object to another, and the mind also wanders with them, although the mind is more subtle than the senses. The senses are the vehicles of the mind as it travels on its journey, but the mind is master of the senses because without it, the senses could not contact or experience any objects. Wherever there is contact of the senses with their objects, the mind is necessarily involved, so withdrawal of the senses actually means withdrawal of the mind. Vyasa, the Yoga Sutras' commentator, therefore says that when the senses are disconnected from their objects, they dwell in or dissolve into the mind. Once the modifications of the mind are controlled, it is not necessary to make any extra effort to control the senses. When the queen bee (mind) flies, all the bees (senses) fly, and when she sits, all the bees sit around her. <~>Relaxation is actually the practice of pratyahara. When one wants to relax a limb of his body, he simply disconnects the communication of the mind and the senses to that particular limb. This is called releasing tension, and when one has mastered voluntary relaxation in this way, he attains perfect control over the senses and mind and enters a state of concentration. The process of withdrawing the senses and the mind is actually the process of recollecting the scattered forces of the senses and mind. When these forces are no longer dissipated, concentration naturally takes place. Dharana--Concentration Having withdrawn the senses and the mind from external objects, the mind must then carry a single thought pattern in a desired direction. Concentration, the sixth limb of Yoga, is a process through which one withdraws the mind from all directions and focuses its powers for further journey inward. To facilitate this process, one selects a suitable object for concentration such as a mantra, a form, or a center in the body, to name a few. In a relaxed state, past impressions accumulated in the mind rise to the surface, disturbing the mind's ability to stay on one thought pattern. In daily life, one unconsciously and involuntarily concentrates in many ways. In extreme happiness or sorrow, for example, the mind becomes concentrated on one single thought pattern. But such external concentration is motivated by emotion, instinct, or impulse and is therefore not considered to be yogi concentration. According to Patanjali, concentration is an internal process that takes place in the mind and is volitionally directed by the will. <~>There are five factors that are helpful in bringing the mind to a state of concentration. One cannot focus the mind unless one has interest in the object on which one wants to concentrate, so developing interest is the first step. With interest, attention can then be developed. Voluntary focusing based on interest and directed by will power and strengthened by determination results in paying full attention to an object. Practice is the next requisite. Regular repetition of techniques that help the mind to flow spontaneously without a break helps form the habit of concentration. For example, setting a specific practice time, choosing a favorable environment, keeping a proper diet, and regulating sleep make it easier to concentrate the mind. Next, using the same straight, steady, and comfortable seated posture every time one practices and using a smooth, deep, and regular diaphragmatic breathing pattern help one keep the mind and body calm, yet alert. Finally, a calm mind is necessary because an emotionally disturbed mind cannot concentrate. An attitude of detachment from external objects and of witnessing one's own physical and mental activity calms the mind and develops emotional maturity. When the student practices concentration, he is advised not to exert undue effort because effort leads to tension, and tension dissipates or disturbs the nervous system and senses as well as the mind. <~>There are various kinds of concentration: gross and subtle, outer and inner, subjective and objective, and so on. According to Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, one can concentrate internally on some point within the body, such as the cardiac center, the base of the bridge between the nostrils, or the tip of the tongue; or one can concentrate externally on any selected object. If the object of concentration is pleasant, beautiful, and interesting, then it is easy for the mind to focus on it for a long time. Using a mantra or the breath for the object of concentration is considered to be the best method for learning to focus the mind one-pointedly in preparation for attaining a meditative state. Dhyana--Mediation The seventh step in the practice of Yoga is meditation. Meditation is an advanced state of concentration in which one single object of concentration flows without interruption. In this state, the mind becomes fully one- pointed, and by one-pointedness the yogi can approach the Supersoul. The process of withdrawal of the senses, concentration, and meditation can be compared to a river that originates when many small streams gather and merge into one large flow of water. The river then flows through hills and valleys without being stopped by bushes and rocks, and it then finds the plains, where it flows smoothly and harmoniously, passing through forests and villages until it reaches its final destination and merges with the sea. So it is with the process of meditation. At the initial stage, the senses and mind are withdrawn and made one-pointed. Then that one-pointed mind flows constantly toward one object without being distracted by petty emotions, thoughts, memories, and anxieties. Then it enters into the smooth, uninterrupted flow of the meditative state in which, siddhis (supernatural powers) are experienced. These are analogous to the villages through which the river flows undistractedly. At last the mind ultimately enters samadhi and connects with the consciousness of the Supreme Soul. Samadhi--Spiritual Absorption The word samadhi is closely related to the word samahitam, which means `the state in which all questions are answered', or `the state in which one is established in one's true nature'. Out of curiosity regarding the basic questions that the mind wants to solve, the mind flits from one thought to another and becomes restless. But the moment the mind resolves its curiosity, it has no reason to wander here and there, and thus it naturally establishes itself in its true nature. Then the mind is in a state beyond the concept of language in which it is accustomed to think or produce modifications. Samadhi is a state beyond thinking and feeling in which the individual soul is linked with the Supreme Soul. In samadhi one casts away all limitations and causations and enjoys eternal bliss and happiness. It is not a state of the dissolution of individuality. Yogis know samadhi as a mystical fulfillment of individuality. <~>In different Yoga traditions this state is called soundless sound, the state of silence, or the highest state of peace and happiness. There are two stages of samadhi: sabija and nirbija. Sabija samadhi means samadhi `with seeds'. In this state, the sense of individual interest separate from the Supersoul is retained and the seeds of desire and attachment still remain in latent form. In the state of nirbija or seedless samadhi, however, the individual consciousness is completely united with the Supreme Soul. This may understood in two ways. If the yogi surrenders all separate interests and serves only the interests of the Paramatma, he becomes a pure devotee of God and by the Lord's mercy gains entry into the eternal spiritual realm (Vaikuntha). But if the yogi identifies with the Paramatma as his own self, he is absorbed into the body of the Lord. This is called Isvara-sayuja (merging into the Supreme Lord Visnu). The first is a devotional union with God, the second is nondevotional. Generally the followers of the Patanjala Yoga system aspire for the second kind of union. Samyama Patanjali uses the term samyama to describe the combined state of concentration, meditation, and samadhi. According to Patahjali, one can achieve whatever one wants to through the practice of samyama because it expands human potentials and allows one to explore higher and higher states of consciousness. Through the practice of samyama it is said that one can develop supernatural powers or perfections, called siddhis, which are described in the third chapter of the Yoga Sutras. Because the body is a miniature presentation of the cosmos, whatever exists in the cosmos is present in the body. Microcosm and macrocosm being one, an individual can thus have access to the powers of the universe. The practice of samyama upon any object brings perfection regarding that object. By practicing samyama on latent mental impressions (samskaras), for example, one can realize their content and achieve knowledge of previous births. By the practice of samyama on the navel center, one can understand one's entire physiology. By the practice of samyama on the throat center one can eliminate hunger and thirst. By the practice of samyama on the distinction between Purusa and Prakrti, one can attain knowledge of Purusa, the Supreme Consciousness. Many other kinds of supernatural powers, such as enhanced powers of sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, and the powers of minuteness, lightness, greatness, and lordship also mentioned. One who attains these partial perfections still has to go beyond their charms and temptations to establish himself in the state of perfect samadhi. The Concept of God Patanjali accepts the existence of God (Isvara). According to him God is the perfect supreme being who is eternal, all-pervading, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. God is that particular Purusa who is unaffected by the afflictions of ignorance, egoism, desire, aversion, and fear of death. He is also free from all karma actions, from the results of action, and from all latent impressions. Patanjali says that the individual has the same essence as God, but because of the limitations produced by afflictions and karma, one separates oneself from God-consciousness and becomes a victim of the material world. There is only one God. It is ignorance that creates duality from the one single reality called God. When ignorance is dissolved into the light of knowledge, all dualities are dissolved and full union is achieved. When one overcomes ignorance, duality dissolves and he merges with the perfect single Being. That perfect single Being always remains perfect and one. There is no change in the ocean no matter how many rivers flow into it, and unchangeabili- ty is the basic condition of perfection. (Text 19028) Karma-mimamsa -- Part 1 of 2 parts Elevation Through the Performance of Duty The word Karma refers to any action that results in a reaction, whether it be good or bad. The word Mimamsa means to analyze and understand thoroughly. The philosophical systems of Karma-mimamsa and Vedanta are closely related to each other and are in some ways complimentary. Karma-mimamsa may be understood as a stepping stone to Vedanta. It examines the teachings of the Veda in the light of karma-kanda rituals, whereas Vedanta examines the same teachings in the light of transcendental knowledge. The Karma-mimamsa system is called Purva-mimamsa, which means the earlier study of the Veda, and Vedanta is called Uttara-mimamsa, which means the later study of the Veda. Karma-mimamsa is to be taken up by householders, and Vedanta is reserved for wise men who have graduated from household life and taken up the renounced order (sannyasa). <~>The main goal of the Karma-Mimamsa philosophy is to provide a practical methodology for the utilization of the Vedic religion (dharma) for the satisfaction of the urges for wealth (artha) and sensual pleasure (kama). In so doing, Karma-mimamsa offers a materialistic explanation of the Vedic rituals for persons whose worldly attachments have blinded them to spiritual understanding. In the Vedic rituals, numerous gods and goddesses are invoked. The Karma-mimamsa system interprets these deities and their worship in terms of a highly `human-centered' rather than `God-centered' rationale. Sound and mantra are explained according to an elaborate but ultimately impersonal science. The self-discipline established by the Yoga system (discussed previously) is wedded with the ritualistic portion of the Vedas. The fruit of this marriage is bhogaisvarya, sense enjoyment and opulence both in this life and the next. With bhogaisvarya as the guiding principle, Karma-mimamsa steers selfish and sceptical human beings into dutiful subordination to the Vedic injunctions. But this is only to prepare them for further advancement of knowledge as taught in the Vedanta system. Thus Karma-mimamsa is a philosophy of karma-yoga, and Vedanta is a philosophy of jnana-yoga. <~>The first systematic work on this school of Vedic thought is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini, which is divided into twelve chapters. Sabara Swami wrote a major commentary on the Mimamsa Sutra, and many other commentaries and independent works on this philosophy exist. Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara, the revivalists of this system in post-Buddhist India, founded two branches of Karma-mimamsa. The major teachings of these branches are the same. The Concept of Duty Many people are very concerned about their rights but little aware of their duties. Unless one knows what one's duties are, he cannot understand what his rights are. Demanding rights without accepting duty leads to many problems, as is evinced by today's chaotic culture of selfishness. Duty may be defined as a tradition of responsibility incumbent upon human beings everywhere that ultimately has divine origin. It is because of the law of duty that the family, society, the nation, and the entire universe come into existence. The execution of duty handed down by higher authority is the path of honor in all human cultures; conversely, the path of dishonor is the neglect of duty for the satisfaction of animalistic urges. History teaches that when the family, society, and nation fail to fulfill traditional duties and instead follow the whims of lust as their only value system, they are soon destroyed. <~>The term dharma is variously translated as `virtue', `duty', `morality', `righteousness', or `religion', but no single English word conveys the whole meaning of dharma. According to the Karma-mimamsa system, dharma is the intrinsic nature of rta, the breath of cosmic life. One who hopes to breathe and thus live happily should not disturb the breath of cosmic life. Disturbing other living beings disturbs the rhythm of the cosmic breath. That is called adharma. The performance of dharma establishes harmony with the breath of cosmic life. All those activities that coordinate one's individual life with universal life constitute one's duty or dharma. These activities are prescribed in the Vedic scriptures. <~>There is always a hierarchy in one's duties. Everywhere and at every moment a human being is faced with some kind of duty, and one has to be very discriminating to understand the appropriate duty that is to be performed at a particular time and place. One's scripturally authorized role in life provides the key to knowing one's primary duty. For example, under the codes of Vedic dharma it is the highest duty of a mother to take care of her child. The highest duty of a teacher is to teach, that of a student is to study, and that of a doctor is to take care of his patients. According to Karma-mimamsa, the highest duty of a brahmana is to perform Vedic rituals. The science of Vedic rituals is handed down by ancient sages. They hid this science in arcane language that is understandable only to the initiate. The efficacy of this science is determined by the subtleties of the time, place and circumstance of the performance of the rituals, and especially by the brahminical qualifications of the performer. A person's entrance into the science of Vedic rituals depends upon the sanction of higher authorities. Ritual Duty and Philosophy Most people lack higher inspiration in their daily duties. They perform them only to earn money or status. Ritualism illumined by philosophy gives one awareness of the deep significance of the even the small duties of life. Everyone has a morning routine composed of various steps. For example, a working man awakens early, goes to the toilet, brushes his teeth, washes his face, shaves, takes a shower, dresses, and finally eats breakfast. He does none of this with any sense of consecration -- his actions have no higher end or aim than simply to reach the office at exactly nine o'clock. As a result he does not experience any particular fulfillment from the activities he performs from bathroom through breakfast. His whole life rotates through a mechanical framework because of his mundane view of existence. But viewing the daily, unexceptional routines of life as rituals linked to the cycles of the cosmos helps expand the consciousness beyond the shallowness of workaday life. In short, a ritual is a meditation. When a brahmana makes breakfast as an offering or oblation to the fire of digestion within, remembering that the same cosmic principle of fiery energy burns within the bellies of all creatures and within the sun and electricity and the sacrificial fire, then the whole process is transformed, although the activities are the same as always. <~>In the Karma-mimamsa concept, rituals are performed not to worship or please any deity but rather simply because the Veda commands one to perform them. Thus, rituals are practiced for the sake of duty. Food is cooked and through the use of mantras, the Cosmic Enjoyer (Jagatpurusa) in whom the demigods and all beings exist and enjoy life is invited to partake of the food and grant blessings in return. But the offering is not made as an act of devotion. Rather, the Karma-mimamsaka believes the Jagatpurusa is obliged by the ritual to accept the offering and give benedictions. Mastery of the ritual is mastery over the powers of the universe. By proper execution of ritual, the performer expects to enjoy prosperity on earth and be promoted to heaven (higher planets within this universe where the standard of sensual happiness is much superior to earth). The Karma-mimamsa system teaches that one can cut one's own poisonous plant of past bad karma with the powerful ax of present good karma in the form of the performance of Vedic rituals. The Karma-mimamsa Analysis of the Veda Just as in English there are various types of sentences-- interrogatory, declarative, imperative, exclamatory--so too the Veda is composed of various types of sentences. These include vidhi (imperative), nisedha (negative), and stuti, which are the devotional sentences of praise. Just as any language can be analyzed and understood by the nature and structure of its sentences, Karma-mimamsa studies the Veda according to the nature of its sentences. Having analyzed them, it declares that imperative statements are more valid than devotional sentences. The teachings of imperative sentences can therefore be accepted and practiced, but the teachings of devotional sentences must be further analyzed to determine their implied core meanings. The system for interpreting Vedic texts is laid down in such works as the Mimamsa-anukramanika of Mandana Misra. The Science of Mantra The generic term for all Vedic verses and sentences is mantra. The Veda is the embodiment of knowledge expressed in the form of sound and symbolically represented in script. Karma-mimamsa accepts sound (sabda) as eternal. It places greater emphasis on mantras than it does on gods and goddesses because it only believes in the validity of the science of sound on which the science of mantra is based. This belief accounts for Karma-mimamsa's trust in the efficacy of systematic rituals. Karma-Mimamsa states that the Vedic rites are grounded in empirical science rather than religious faith; it does not view the performance of rituals as a means for imploring favors from deities. <~>Karma-mimamsa does not study sound only at its articulated level but explores the subtle levels of sound by delving into its origin and examining its various vibrational patterns. Sound is called vak in Sanskrit, but this word cannot be translated merely as `sound', or `speech'. Vak refers to both thought and expression, while speech is the communication of thoughts and feelings through spoken words. Vak sakti, the power of speech, is actually a law of communication that is responsible for conveying thoughts and concepts, both individually and collectively. When one talks with someone else, the law of communication (vak sakti) is already present before one speaks and after one has spoken. Vak sakti is the force flowing from a higher level of consciousness through the articulated level of speech, which is its gross expression. Karma-mimamsa categorizes vak sakti at four levels: para (transcendent), pasyanti (concentrated thought pattern), madhyama (formulated through thought patterns ready for expression), and vaikhari (expression with the help of words). <~>According to Karma-mimamsa there are two universally intertwined factors in manifestation: sabda, the sound; and artha, the object denoted by that sound. One signifies the name, and the other signifies the form. They are inseparably associated; there can be no sabda without artha, no artha without sabda. Together, they are the self-existent reality which is not subject to change, death, and decay. As they manifest, a double line of creation--words and objects--is formed. <~>External sound, sensed by hearing, is of two types: sound with meaning and sound without meaning. Sound with meaning consists of the phonemes and words that make up language, but sound without meaning is not formulated into words and is not recognized as an element of communication. According to Karma- mimamsa, external sound is transient, but it is also a manifestation of the eternal sound in akasa (ether). The Nyaya school does not accept the Mimamsa theory of sound; it holds that words are transitory in every regard. Karma-mimamsa counters that the perception of sound that begins when vibrating air contacts the ear drums must be distinguished from the sound itself. For gross sound to exist, one object must contact another. That is an external event. But the Karma-mimamsa theory of sound with meaning goes beyond gross sound. It also goes beyond the subtle internal mental movement of ideas that seeks outward expression through audible sound in phonemes, letters, words and sentences. According to Karma-mimamsa, these gross and subtle perceptions of sound are transient. Sound itself is eternal. The moment at which sound can be perceived is not the same moment at which it is produced; sound exists prior to its becoming audible, and even prior to its being thought of. (Text 20702) Karma-mimamsa -- part 2 of 2 parts The finest state of sound, called para vak, is perfect. The Karma-mimamsa philosophy holds the eternal para vak to be the cause of all causes. [In Gaudiya Vaisnava philosophy, this para vak is the sound of Maha Visnu's breathing, which precedes the appearance of the universe.] This para vibration cannot be perceived by physical instruments such as the ears; physical sound is inadequate for attainment of the ultimate state of consciousness signified by para vak. The next phase of sound is called pasyanti vak. There is only a slight difference between the state of para and that of pasyanti. Both are transcendental, but in pasyanti, the subtle form of the universe is `seen' within sound as the primeval artha, or object of desire. The word pasyanti means `one who sees'. [Note: prior to his work of creation, Lord Brahma sees the subtle universal form after meditating upon the divine sound `tapa tapa'.] In this state the power of desire still remains dormant, but it is nonetheless the direct cause of the universe, which will be manifested as both idea and speech. The third state of vak is called madhyama, meaning `that which is intermediate'. This state of speech is neither transcendent, as in pasyanti, nor completely manifest, as is vaikhari (the grossest state of sound); it is between these two stages. Finally, the fourth state of speech is completely manifest and audible. At this stage, a sound that belongs to a specific language can be perceived through the sense of hearing. This state of sound is always accompanied by geographical, cultural and social diversities and distinctions that form different languages composed of articulated and distinguishable sounds. <~>The origin of speech is transcendent and eternal. The flow of pasyanti, madhyama and vaikhari from the state of para is the flow of the creative stream of energy from vak sakti. Vak sakti can be compared to the source of a river hidden in the silent, inaccessible mountains. From there the river descends as a gurgling torrent that rushes into the valleys, where streams merge with it. Then it flows on to the plains and finally dissolves its identity into the ocean. Similarly, speech emerges from its hidden source in the state of silence (para), flows downward into more and more manifested stages, and then at last dissolves into infinity, its origin. All that has meaning is unfolded by vak sakti in the beginning -- and enfolded by it in the end. <~>When vak or speech passes through the human mind, it becomes contaminated with the limitations of time, space, and causation. The ultimate truth of vak is therefore obscured in everyday speech. But this is not the case with mantras. Mantras are more than mere spoken words, or even the thoughts of words. They are original, uncontaminated, and fully potent vibrational patterns that are revealed to sages in the deepest state of meditation. Karma-mimamsa philosophy explains mantras as the primal expressions of the creative force. A mantra is therefore referred to as a setu, a bridge, that the student can use to cross over the mire of delusion and reach the other shore of Brahman, the cause of the universe. Mantras are capable of lighting in the human heart an eternal lamp of knowledge that does not flicker in the strong wind of worldly charms and temptations. <~>The potential of a mantra lies in a dormant state until it is awakened. The secret of awakening and utilizing mantras lies in the rhythmic vibrations in which the mantra is meant to be pronounced and repeated. The proper use of mantras, with their prescribed rituals, is designed to lead one to experience the bliss and happiness contained within the mantra itself. The power of mantra and its awakening can be explained by the following analogy: In the rainy season in some tropical countries the humidity may be one hundred percent, but one cannot quench his thirst with atmospheric water alone because it is not concentrated in usable form. Likewise the great potential of mantras is hidden and diffuse. One must therefore learn how to awaken, concentrate, and utilize their potential. The Karma-mimamsa Concept of Gods and Goddesses Modern scientists have developed mathematical equations and scientific laws to describe the order and lawfulness of the universe and thereby increase man's power and control over phenomena. Likewise, the Vedic sages developed an immense body of knowledge of the underlying laws, structure and dynamics of the phenomenal world. According to the Karma-mimamsa system, the universal controllers who wield cosmic power and maintain the universal order are to be scientifically comprehended through the sound of mantras. The deities or gods are the personified forms of universal principles that correspond to the vibrating sound patterns of mantras. For an uneducated person, the equation E=MC^2 is just a meaningless arrangement of lines on a piece of paper. But for those with a sufficient understanding of physics, this formula can help one to comprehend the laws, structure and dynamics of the universe. The Karma- mimamsakas have a similar conception of Vedic mantras as do physicists of their formulas. <~>Some critics of Karma-mimamsa philosophy accuse the system of promoting polytheism. But there is an underlying unity. The mimamsakas believe in an all-pervading consciousness that manifests itself as different potencies, each of which has a different form (deity) and sound vibration (mantra). Thus the apparent diversity of deities and mantras represents the One Consciousness, Brahman. The process of manifestation begins with the emergence of the most subtle forms, from which grosser forms are then manifested. The most subtle forms are the Vedic demigods and demigoddesses radiating from the para vak source. From the demigods grosser names and forms become manifest. Karma- mimamsakas see the demigods as thought-forms. They are not physically embodied. If they were physically embodied, the mimamsakas argue, it would not be possibly for a single deity to be present at many different rituals being performed in different places at the same time. Yet it would not be correct to conclude that Karma-mimamsakas think the forms of the demigods are creations of the mind. In this philosophy the forms of the demigods are the sound-bodies of the Vedic mantras. They are endowed with perfect bliss and happiness beyond physical and mental experience. Though it seems that deity and mantra are two distinct principles operating on two different levels, in reality they are one and the same. A deity is the personal form of a mantra, and a mantra is the impersonal vibration of a deity. The impersonal vibration of a mantra forms a regular pattern of sound, and from out of that pattern a deity emerges. Likewise, a personalized form can be depersonalized and reduced to certain frequencies of vibration that will be heard as a mantra. <~>There are certain rules by which a mantra converts into a deity and a deity converts into mantra. Both deities and mantras operate on a principle similar to the conversion of energy into matter and matter into energy in physics. Wherever a particular ritual is performed with the proper utilization of mantras, the deity related to those mantras is present because when the vibration is concentrated, the form of the deity materializes. According to the Karma-mimamsa system, the darsana of a deity does not therefore depend on the grace of that deity. Rather, the deity, or form, is manifested wherever the mantra related to it is pronounced in a prescribed manner. Then it has to yield the desired objects that the karma-kanda scriptures say are provided by it. The Karma-mimamsa system does not rely on the grace of God for attaining worldly things or achieving liberation. Adepts of Karma- mimamsa philosophy presume that the cosmic powers can be utilized at will by proper execution of ritual. Karma-mimamsa identifies two purposes of ritual: to attain and expand one's own inner potential and unite it with the Source, and to pay respect and show gratitude to the cosmic forces that are constantly supplying light and life to all sentient beings. These two purposes are considered to be the foremost duties of human beings and should be an inseparable part of everyone's life. The Physical is Divine Karma-mimamsa applies a theory of the all-pervading presence of divinity by providing specific practices designed to remind the student of this truth. For example, the use of common objects such as water, fruit, incense, grass, stones, and fire in rituals links the mundane with the divine. There is a prescribed way for gathering these items for the ritual and for handling and using them during the ceremony. For instance, before a blade of grass is uprooted, one is to recite a specific mantra to revere and glorify the divinity within the grass and to ask permission to uproot the grass and use it in the ceremony. When the grass is uprooted one recites another mantra, explaining the process in the following sense: `I am uprooting my negativities symbolized by the grass. Even within negativities, there is divinity. I am uprooting it for use in the ritual, in which the real nature of divinity shall be unveiled'. Thus a pantheistic conception of God is encouraged in Karma-mimamsa for those who are unable to conceive of the divine in any other way. By thus seeing everything as divine, the mind is checked from being overcome by hatred, jealousy, anger, greed, and all other negative attitudes. <~>Vedic statements such as sarvam khalv idam brahma, `The whole universe is Brahman', are understood to mean that a person in transcendental consciousness sees the universe as eternal. The Karma-mimamsakas know well that the grosser forms of manifestation (madhyama and vaikhari) are temporary. But they hold that the most subtle level of cosmic consciousness (pasyanti) is transcendental, like the source (para). On this level, beyond transitory physical and mental perception, sabda (sound) and artha (object) are timeless. Though riches and beautiful women as well as the human body we use to enjoy them are worn away by time, the unmanifest sound-objects behind them are eternal. Riches, women and the human body may be enjoyed life after life by one who knows how to manipulate these sound-objects (i.e. the demigods who award the riches etc.). The Karma-mimamsaka thus strives for "eternal" material happiness, in the sense that he hopes to ever-renew his material happiness life after life by expert utilization of mantra and ritual to generate an endless chain of good karma. The Sources of Valid Knowledge Karma-mimamsa, like the other Vedic philosophical systems, places great importance on the study of the sources of valid knowledge (pramanas). According to Karma-mimamsa there are six different sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, testimony, postulation, and non-perception. (Non-perception is recognized as a source only by the school of Kumarila Bhatta and not by that of Prabhakara). Karma-mimamsa emphasizes testimony as a source of knowledge because it believes exclusively in the authority of the Veda. The Karma-mimamsa theories of perception and inference are very similar to those of the Nyaya system, but the Karma-mimamsa theory of comparison is quite different from that of Nyaya, although both ultimately base their theories on the similarity of two things, of which one is already known. <~>Postulation (arthapatti) is the necessary supposition of an unperceived fact to explain some apparently conflicting phenomena. For example, a person who does not eat during the day but constantly grows fat can be suspected of eating at night. One cannot solve the contradiction between fasting and growing fat unless he assumes that the person eats at night. Knowledge of the person eating at night cannot come under the category of perception or inference, nor can it be reduced to testimony or comparison. Nonperception (anupalabdhi) is the source of one's immediate cognition of nonexisting things. One can know the nonexistence of a thing by the absence of its cognition, that is, if it is not present in the senses and it cannot be understood by any other source of valid knowledge. For instance, one can feel the absence of a jar that does not exist because it is not perceived by the senses, but one cannot say that the nonexistence of a jar is inferred by its nonperception, because an inference is based on the universals relationship between middle and major terms. And in this case there is no universal relationship between nonperception (middle term) and the nonexistence of a jar (major term). Therefore direct knowledge of the nonexistence of a jar can be explained only if nonperception is recognized as a separate and independent source of knowledge. The Concept of Soul Karma-mimamsa does not pursue metaphysics but instead emphasizes the practical approach of Karma Yoga, the Yoga of action. Rituals have three components: the performer, the object of the action, and the process of performing it. The main doctrine of Karma Yoga is: `As you sow, so shall you reap'. Accordingly, one is the master of his own destiny and is free to enjoy his karma as either master or slave. Karma-mimamsa considers the soul to be an eternal, infinite substance with the capacity for consciousness. Implicit in the Karma-mimamsa philosophy is the belief that the soul is meant to enjoy matter. The soul's perfection is attained through perfectly following the karma-kanda process by which all enjoyable things within this universe may be realized. (Text 21625) Vedanta: The Conclusion of the Vedic Revelation Part 1 of 4 parts In the introduction of this series it was explained that the Upanisads are the subject of the fourth and final degree of Vedic scholarship. Therefore the Upanisads are known as Vedanta, `the conclusion of the Veda'. Karma-mimamsa philosophy arose from the preliminary study of the ritualistic portions of the Vedas. Karma-mimamsa is therefore known as purva-mimamsa, `the prior deliberation'. Vedanta is called uttara-mimamsa, `the higher deliberation', and also brahma-mimamsa, `deliberation on Brahman, the Absolute Truth'. <~>The word upanisad means `that which is learned by sitting close to the teacher'. The texts of the Upanisads are extremely difficult to fathom; they are to be understood only under the close guidance of a spiritual master (guru). Because the Upanisads contain many apparently contradictory statements, the great sage Vyasadeva (also known as Vedavyasa, Badarayana and Dvaipayana) systematized the Upanisadic teachings in the Vedanta-sutra or Brahma-sutra. The Vedanta-sutra is divided into four chapters: Samanvaya, which explains the unity of the philosophy of the Upanisads; Avirodha, which dispels apparent contradictions; Sadhana, which describes the means to attain the Supreme; and Phala, which indicates the goal. Vyasa's sutras are very terse. Without a fuller explanation, their meaning is dificult to grasp. In India there are five main schools of Vedanta, each established by an acarya who explained the sutras in a bhasya (commentary). <~>Of the five schools or sampradayas, one, namely Sankara's, is impersonalist. This means that the Supreme Being is explained in impersonal terms as being nameless, formless and without characteristics. The schools of Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka and Visnusvami explain God in personal terms; these acaryas and their followers have very exactingly formulated a philosophy that dispels the sense of mundane limitation associated with the word `person' and establishes transcendental personalism in terms of eternity, endless knowledge, complete bliss, absolute all-attractive form and all-encompassing love. Each of the five Vedantist sampradayas is known for its siddhanta or `essential conclusion' about the relationships between God and the soul, the soul and matter, matter and matter, matter and God, and the soul and souls. Sankara's siddhanta is Advaita, `nondifference' (i.e. everything is one, therefore these five relationships are unreal). All the other siddhantas support the reality of these relationships from various points of view. Ramanuja's siddhanta is Visistadvaita, `qualified nondifference'. Madhva's siddhanta is Dvaita, `difference'. Visnusvami's siddhanta is Suddhadvaita, `purified nondifference'. And Nimbarka's siddhanta is Dvaita-advaita, `difference-and-identity'. <~>The Bengali branch of Madhva's sampradaya is known as the Brahma-Madhva- Gaudiya Sampradaya, or the Caitanya Sampradaya. In the 1700's this school presented Indian philosophers with a commentary on Vedanta-sutra written by Baladeva Vidyabhusana that argued yet another siddhanta. It is known as Acintya-bhedabheda-tattva, which means `simultaneous inconceivable oneness and difference'. In recent years this siddhanta has become known to people from all over the world due to the popularity of the books of Sri Srimad A.C. Bhaktivedanta Svami Prabhupada. Acintya-bhedabheda philosophy maintains the same standpoint of `difference' as in Madhva's explanation of the five-fold relationship of God to soul, soul to matter, matter to matter, matter to God and soul to soul. But Acintya-bhedabheda-tattva further establishes the doctrine of Saktiparinamavada (the transformation of the Lord's sakti), in which the origin of this five-fold differentiation is traced to the Lord's play with His sakti or energy. Because the souls and matter emanate from the Lord, they are one in Him as His energy yet simultaneously distinct from Him and one another. The oneness and difference in this five-fold relationship is termed acintya or inconceivable because, as Srila Prabhupada writes in his purport to Bhagavad-gita 18.78, "Nothing is different from the Supreme, but the Supreme is always different from everything." As the origin and coordinator of His energies, God is ever the inconceivable factor. We should note carefully that acintya or inconceivable does not mean "inexplicable" (i.e. that simultaneous oneness and difference "cannot be explained"). The term "acintya" is used as a warning to persons who would try to conceive of God by mental speculation. For instance, someone might argue, "The material world, being God's energy, is therefore one with Him. Consequently God must be contaminated by His oneness with the material world." This argument is erroneous, because the Lord is always distinct from matter. Thus He is called Acintya, He who cannot be understood though the mundane workings of the mind. Sankara and Buddhism Sometimes Sankara's Advaita Vedanta commentary is presented in books about Hinduism as if it is the original and only Vedanta philosophy. But a closer look at the advaita doctrine shows it to be in opposition to many of the fundamental tenets of the Vedanta-sux$��S�-=x$fq�|#�x#�=�)r0�Y+�҇y/6`*4fq�|+Ec�*4fq�|+Ec�-q�+Ec�-N��v+Ec� N+V2�1��V: N+V2��+Ec�N+V2�J+Ec�_/N+V2x�W�: r�c!D�c$Edf08�|-_ԑ@�Illegal internal errorU���Q�^��F��Ȼ���H�!+�vP��
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+�P�ڸ�{x Purusa-vadins (purusa = `person', vadin = `philosopher'). Purusavadins understood the goal of Vedanta philosophy to be personal and termed God the Mahapurusa (Greatest Person). Bhavya, an Indian Buddhist author who lived centuries before Sankara, wrote in the Madhyamika-hrdaya-karika that the Vedantists of his time were adherents of the doctrine of bhedabheda (simultaneous oneness and difference), which is personalistic. Another Indian Buddhist writer, Bhartrhari, who lived at the same time as Sankara, stated that although Sankara was a brahmana scholar of the Vedas, his impersonal teachings resembled Buddhism. This is admitted by the followers of Sankara themselves. Professor Dr. Rajmani Tigunait of the Himalayan Institute of Yoga is a present-day exponent of Advaita Vedanta; he writes that the ideas of the Buddhist Sunyavada (voidist) philosophers are `very close' to Sankara's. Sunyavada is one of four important schools of Buddhism that developed in India before Sankara's time. The word Sunya (void) refers to the impersonal emptiness that the Buddhists believe pervades all things. When one attains the Buddha-consciousness, the forms of the world fade away like dreams and only emptiness remains. In his Vedanta commentary, Sankara maintained the same idea of ultimate emptiness, substituting the Upanisadic word Brahman (the Absolute) for Sunya. Because Sankara argued that all names, forms, qualities, activities and relationships are maya (illusion), even divine names and forms, his philosophy is called Mayavada (the doctrine of illusion). <~>Sankara's purpose was to revive an interest in Vedanta philosophy in an India that had largely rejected the Vedas in favor of Buddhism. This task he accomplished brilliantly, albeit by artificially incorporating Buddhist ideas into his commentary so as to make it acceptable to the intellectuals of his time. It became the task of later Vedantists in other sampradayas to rid Vedanta philosophy of the influence of Buddhism. Though they attacked the Mayavadi doctrine as non-Vedic, they were indebted to Sankara for having brought Vedanta to the forefront of Indian philosophical discussion. The nature of God in Vedanta philosophy If, as the Mayavadis argue, God is an impersonal absolute that is indifferent to its worshipers, then God cannot be the goal of the Vedic religion. And if knowledge of God cannot be expressed in words, then God cannot be the subject of the texts of the Upanisads either. Thus the Mayavadi conception of God undermines the very purpose of the Vedas. The Vedantists of the four personalist schools therefore set out to establish a truly Vedic theology. <~>The first code of the Vedanta-sutra (athato brahma-jijnasa, which means `Now, therefore, let us inquire into Brahman, the Absolute'), is Vyasa's directive to brahmanas who have tired of the Vedic kamyakarmas (the rituals aimed at material benefits) which yield only limited and temporary fruits. Brahma-jijnasa (inquiry into Brahman) is Vedic metaphysics (meta=beyond, physic=matter). The term jijnana (inquiry) indicates that God is not a being so radically divorced from sensory experience that He can only be known in terms of what He is not (the `via negativa' of European theology, which is the method the Mayavadis call neti-neti, `not this, not this'). Quite to the contrary, God may be positively understood by a human being who properly uses his senses and mind to inquire about His positive existence beyond matter. <~>God as the object of positive inquiry is defined in the second code of Vedanta-sutra: janmadyasya-yatah, `He, from whom proceeds the creation, maintenance and dissolution of this universe, is Brahman'. The universe is full of qualities that emanate from God--hence God Himself must be full of qualities. Mayavadi philosophy denies the reality of the qualities of the universe. This in turn denies the very definition the Vedanta-sutra gives for God, for if the universe is unreal, then the God who is said to be the source of the universe must also be unreal. By what authority can we be sure that the universe is real and that God is the source of it? The third code of Vedanta-sutra answers, sastra-yonitvat, `It is revealed in the Vedic scriptures'. <~>The universe has form; if God is the origin of the universe, then He must Himself possess form. But the Vedic scriptures declare that this form is not limited and imperfect like the forms of the material creation. From the Upanisads we learn that God's qualities are satyam jnanam anantam sundaram anandamayam amalam: `eternity, knowledge, endlessness, beauty, bliss, perfection'. This means that God's form is one of infinite and all-pervasive sublime consciousness. A materialistic thinker may object that `all-pervasive form' is a contradiction of terms. The answer is that it is not, once the spiritual substance of God's form is accepted. Spirit is the most subtle energy; even in our experience of subtle material energy, we see there is no contradiction between pervasiveness and form. For instance, the pervasiveness of sound is not impeded when sound is given form (as in the form of beautiful music). <~>God's form is one, but is understood differently from different angles of vision, just as a mountain is seen differently by a person as he approaches it from a great distance and climbs to the top. From the great distance of theoretical speculation, God is known as Brahman, a vague and impersonal being. A closer look at God is made possible by yoga, by which He is perceived as Paramatma, the Supersoul who dwells within the heart of every living being and who inspires the soul with knowledge, remembrance and forgetfulness. And finally, from the perspective of bhakti (pure devotion), one may know God in His feature of personal perfection called Bhagavan. Vedanta-sutra 1.1.12 states, anandamaya-bhyasat: `The Para Brahman (the Supreme Godhead) is anandamaya'. Anandamaya means `of the nature of pure bliss'. This is a clear reference to God's Bhagavan feature, which is all- blissful due to its being the reservoir of unlimited positive transcendental attributes such as beauty, wealth, fame, strength, knowledge and renunciation. The Mayavadis take anandamaya to mean merely `absence of sorrow', but as Baladeva Vidyabhusana writes in the Govinda-bhasya, `The affix mayat indicates "abundance" (an abundance of ananda or bliss)'. The sun is called jyotirmaya, "of the nature of abundant light" (and not merely "of the nature of the absence of darkness"). Similarly anandamaya means "He whose essential nature is abundant bliss". The Taittiriya Upanisad (2.7.1) states, raso vai sah, `He is of the nature of sweetness; the soul who realizes Him attains to that divine sweetness'. (Text 22647) Vedanta -- Part 2 of 4 parts Relation of God to the world In our study of the other systems of Vedic philosophy we have seen various explanations of the existence of the world. In Nyaya, God is the operative cause of the world, but atoms are the material cause. (In philosophy there are four ways to explain causation, as in this example of the causation of a house: the construction company is the `operative cause' or -- in the terminology of Srila Prabhupada's books -- the `efficient cause', the bricks, cement and other building materials are the `material cause', the original type of house upon which this house is modelled is the `formal cause', and the purpose of the house, i.e. that someone wants to live in it, is the `final cause'.) In Samkhya, creation is regarded as the spontaneous result of the contact between prakrti and purusa. The Samkhya philosopher says `there is no need for God' in his system, but he fails to explain what governs the coming together of prakrti and purusa in the first place. Patanjali says God is the Supreme Self distinguished from other selves, and He is the intelligent governor of prakrti and purusa. But Patanjali nontheless accepts the Samkhya view that prakriti and purusa have no origin. God as creator plays no essential role in the Mimamsaka system, which believes that the world as a whole is eternal, though its gross manifestations may come and go. Discounting all these theories, Vedanta-sutra defines God as He among all beings who alone is simultaneously the operative, material, formal and final causes of the cosmos. As the intelligence behind creation, He is the operative cause; as the source of prakriti and purusa, He is the material cause; as the original transcendental form of which the world is but a shadow, He is the formal cause; as the purpose behind the world, He is the final cause. <~>Mayavadi philosophy avoids the issue of causation by claiming that the world, though empirically real, is ultimatly a dream. But since even dreams have a cause, the Mayavadi `explanation' explains nothing. In the Visistadvaita explanation, the material world is the body of God, the Supreme Soul. But the Dvaita school does not agree that matter is connected to God as body is to soul, because God is transcendental to matter. The world of matter is full of misery, but since Vedanta defines God as anandamaya, how can nonblissful matter be said to be His body? The truth according to the Dvaita school is that matter is ever separate from God but yet is eternally dependent upon God; by God's will, says the Dvaita school, matter becomes the material cause of the world. The Suddhadvaita school cannot agree with the Dvaita school that matter is the material cause because matter has no independent origin apart from God. Matter is actually not different from God in the same way an effect is not different from its cause, although there is an appearance of difference. The example of the ocean and its waves is given by Suddhadvaita philosophers to illustrate their argument that the cause (the ocean) is the same as the effect (the waves). The Dvaitadvaita school agrees that God is both the cause and effect, but is dissatisfied with the Suddhadvaita school's proposition that the difference between God and the world is only apparent. The Dvaitadvaita school says that God is neither one with nor different from the world--He is both. A snake, the Dvaitadvaita school argues, can neither be said to have a coiled form or a straight form. It has both forms. Similarly, God's `coiled form' is His transcendental non-material aspect, and His `straight form' is His mundane aspect. But this explanation is not without its problems. If God's personal nature is eternity, knowledge and bliss, how can the material world, which is temporary, full of ignorance and miserable, be said to be just another form of God? The Caitanya school reconciles these seemingly disparate views of God's relationship to the world by arguing that the Vedic scriptures testify to God's acintya-sakti, `inconceivable powers'. God is simultaneously the cause of the world in every sense and yet distinct from and transcendental to the world. The example given is of a spider and its web. The material of the web comes from the spider's body, so in a sense the spider may be taken as the material cause of the web. Yet again the spider and the web are always separate and distinct entities. While the spider never `is' the web, at the same time because the spider's body is the source of the web, the web is not different from the spider. <~>In terms of Vedanta, the substance of the web is God's Maya-sakti (power of illusion), which is manifest from the Real but is not real itself. `Not real' simply means that the features of maya (the tri-guna, or three modes of material nature--goodness, passion and ignorance) are temporary. Reality is that which is eternal: God and God's Svarupa-sakti (spiritual energy). The temporary features of the material world are manifestations of the Maya-sakti, not of God Himself. These features bewilder the souls of this world just as flies are caught in the spider's web. But they cannot bewilder God. The Christian view of creation compared with Vedanta Christian theologians have not attempted to explain their doctrine of the relationship of God to the world in the rigorous philosophical fashion as have India's Vedantists. Augustine's doctrine is called creation ex nihilo, `creation out of nothing'. In this view, God is eternal and transcendental and creation had a beginning in point of time. But God created the world out of nothing. Augustine argued that if God created the world out of some pre-existent substance, this substance would either be God Himself or something other than God. Since God is immutable, the substance could not be Him. And it could not be a substance other than God, for in the beginning only God existed. So Augustine's conclusion is that the world arose out of nothing at all by the will of God. Thus God is the operative cause of the world but there is no material cause whatsoever. This is a statement of faith that hardly meets the needs of philosophy. A Vedantist would reply, `If it is the nature of reality that something arises from nothing, then this process should be visible today. But we see that all effects must have a material cause. Furthermore, if something can come out of nothing, then it would logically follow that anything could come out of anything--a human being could hatch from a hen's egg or a woman could give birth to a chicken. But we observe that creation follows the rule of like cause, like effect. By this rule, nothing must come from nothing, and something must come from something. This rule is not a limitation of God's supreme power, rather it is a statement of His power, because it is given by God Himself'. <~>What about the final cause i.e. the purpose of creation? According to Augustine, God does not create to attain something, for He is infinitely perfect. He was not compelled to create, but His love inclined Him to create as an expression of His goodness. All creatures represent and participate in divine goodness. This doctrine has given rise to `the problem of evil' that has bedeviled European philosophers for centuries: if God is good and the creation is good, why is there evil? The Christian answer is that God did not create evil but permitted it to oblige man to choose between good and bad. By choosing good, man becomes more exalted that he could be in a world that was all-good. <~>The Vedanta-sutra takes up the question of the purpose of creation and the problem of evil in the second chapter, part one, codes 32-37. First it is established that God has no need to fulfill in creating the material world. The motive is lila, `play'--not the play of a man who is bored or otherwise in need of recreation, but the play of exuberance of spirit. This lila is natural to God, because He is full of self-bliss. But how can causing suffering to others by placing them in a world of birth, old age, disease and death be the sport of God? The answer is that the jivas (individual souls) who fall into the material world have their own motive for entering the creation; this motive is distinct from lila. Their motive is karma, action meant to fulfil material desires left over in the subconscious mind from actions in previous lifetimes. Karma is beginningless. It extends into the past even beyond the beginning of the universe to a previous universe, now destroyed, and universes before that one ad infinitum. Due to karma, some living entities are born into enjoyment and others into suffering. God is responsible for neither good nor evil, which are the fruits of the jivas' own work. Indeed, good and evil are merely dualities of material sense perception which, being temporary, are ultimately unreal. This duality arises from the souls' being divided from God. From the purely spiritual point of view, any conditon in material existence is evil because it is the condition of the soul's selfish forgetfulness of God. The absolute good is love of God. God favors his devotees with His absolute goodness by delivering them from material realm of duality and endless karma and situating them in the spiritual realm of eternal loving service. Relation of God to the individual soul Indian philosophy abounds with speculations about the self, or soul. The doctrine of Carvaka, an ancient thinker who opposed the Vedic teachings, is thoroughly materialistic. He thought the body itself to be the soul and consciousness to be a product of material combination. There is no God, and the purpose of life is to gratify the senses. Carvaka philosophy was strongly opposed by Buddhism which is yet no less materialistic in its outlook on the soul. Buddhism says that soul does not exist. The very concept of `selfness'is false. The body is but a wave in a stream of events. There is no purpose to existence, not even the purpose of sense gratification. There is no God. The only truth is emptiness. These two philosophies represent the extremes of human materialistic mentality: Carvaka is a `sankalpa doctrine' arising from the mental phase of accepting (sankalpa) the material world for enjoyment, and Buddhism is a `vikalpa doctrine', arising from the mental phase of rejecting (vikalpa) the world in frustration. Sankalpa and vikalpa are mere dualities of the mind which inevitably bewilder one who has no knowledge of what is beyond matter, i.e. spirit. <~>The six darsanas of the Vedic scriptures all confirm that the individual self is non-material and eternal. The goal of existence is liberation, and each darsana proposes a means by which the soul may be liberated from material existence. In Vedanta, there are two basic explanations of the soul, one given by the Mayavadis and the other given by the four personalist schools. Mayavadis say that there is only one soul--the Supreme Soul, God. The the conception of a plurality of individual souls is an illusion. Personalists refute the Mayavadi view by pointing out that if it were true that God is the only soul, then that would mean that illusion is more powerful than God--because the so-called One Soul fell under the spell of Maya and became the unlimited living entities subject to repeated birth and death. This is tantamount to saying that there is no Supreme Being at all. The personalists' version is that although God and the souls share the same spiritual qualities (sat-cid-ananda vigraha, `formed of eternity, knowledge and bliss'), still a difference remains between them. God is vibhu (all-pervading) whereas the souls are anu (infinitesimal). The exact relationship between soul and God is described differently by each of the four personalist schools. These viewpoints are synthesized by the Caitanya school, which gives an example of the sun and sunshine to show how God and the souls share the same qualities in oneness and difference simultaneously. Just as the sunshine is the marginal energy of the sun, so the souls are the marginal (tatastha) sakti of God. As sunshine is made up of unlimited photons (infintesimal particles of light), God's tatastha-sakti is made up of unlimited infinitesimal spiritual particles, each one an individually conscious personal being. The soul is called ksetrajna (ksetra=field, jna=knower), because each soul is conscious of his particular field of awareness, i.e. his own body and mind. The soul is like a candle-flame, the limit of his luminiscence being the limit of his field of awareness. God is called vyasti-ksetrajna and samasti-ksetrajna. As vyasti- ksetrajna, God knows everything about each individual soul's individual existence (i.e. He knows unlimitely more about the soul than does the soul himself--for instance, God knows all of the past incarnations of each soul). And as samasti-ksetrajna, God is the knower of all souls at once in their totality. Because the soul is infinitely small, its power of knowledge can be obscured by Maya, just as a ray of the sun can be blocked by a cloud. But clouds are created and destroyed by the influence of the sun on the earth's atmosphere. Similarly, Maya is always subordinate to God. The individual souls may come under the control of Maya, but Maya is always under the control of God. <~>The Caitanya school of Vedanta teaches that the soul has an eternal function which is to serve God. This service may be rendered directly or indirectly. In direct service, the ecstacy (bhava) of spiritual love shared by soul and God is fully manifest in a transcendental personal relationship called rasa (sweet exchange). In indirect service, the soul serves God under the illusion of forgetfulness. Under Maya, the soul is attracted by forms of matter instead of forms of spirit. He is overwhelmed by emotions such as lust, anger, greed, madness, illusion and envy which are nothing but perverted reflections of spiritual emotions. These emotions impel him to try to control and exploit the material world as if it belonged to him. The result of the soul's false lordship over matter is endless entanglement in samsara, the cycle of repeated birth and death. <~>The soul is meant to love God, but God grants the soul a minute independence of choice whether to love God or not. Love is voluntary. If God forced the souls to love Him, then `love' as we understand it would have no meaning. By loving God the soul automatically attains mukti (liberation); conversely, by not loving God the soul comes under the Maya-sakti. There are two kinds of liberation--jivanmukti and videhamukti. Jivanmukti is attained even before the demise of the physical body. When the embodied soul dedicates all his activities to God as an offering of love, he is freed from the bondage of karma. After death he attains videhamukti, an eternal situation of devotional service within the realm of Svarupa-sakti, the divine energy. Videhamukti is described in Chandogya Upanisad 8.12.3: `Thus does that serene being, arising from his last body, appear his own form, having come to the highest light by the grace of Supreme Person. The liberated soul moves about there laughing, playing and rejoicing, in the company of women, vehicles and other liberated souls'. As Baladeva Vidyabhusana explains in his Govinda-bhasya commentary on Vedanta-sutra, the liberated souls are in threefold union with the Lord: 1) they are in the spiritual realm of God, which is not different from God Himself; 2) by their constant meditation upon Him, God is ever-within their souls, and 3) they are in union of love with the personal form of God that appears before them. From this state, the concluding code of Vedanta-sutra declares, anavrittih sabdat, anavrittih sabdat, `There is no return (to the material world). Verily there is no return, for the Vedas so declare'. (Text 24399) Vedanta -- Part 3 of 4 parts The spiritual form of God Vedanta-sutra 3.2.23 states, tat avyaktam aha: `The form of Brahman is unmanifest, so the scriptures say'. The next code adds, api samradhane pratyaksa anumanabhyam: `But even the form of Brahman becomes directly visible to one who worships devoutly--so teach the scriptures' (api=but, samradhane=intense worship, pratyaksa=as directly visible, anumanabhyam=as inferred from scripture). The Mayavadis hold that the form of God is a material symbol imagined by the devotee as a meditational aid. When the devotee attains liberation he realizes that God is formless. But this idea is contradicted by Vedanta-sutra 3.2.16--aha ca tanmatram: `The scriptures declare that the form of the Supreme consists of the very essence of His Self'. And furthermore Vedanta-sutra 3.3.36 asserts that within the realm of Brahman the devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a city (antara bhuta gramavat svatmanah: antara=inside, bhuta=physical, gramavat=like a city, svatmanah=to His own, i.e. to His devotees). <~>The personalist schools of Vedanta identify the personal form of God indicated here as the transcendental form of Visnu or Krsna. The brahma-pura (city within Brahman) is identified as the divine realm of Visnu known as Vaikuntha. This conclusion is corroborated by the Srimad Bhagavatam, written by Vyasa as his own `natural commentary' on Vedanta-sutra. The first verse of Srimad Bhagavatam begins with the phrase om namo bhagavate vasudevaya janmadyasya yatah, which means `I offer my respectful obeisances to Bhagavan Vasudeva (Krsna), the source of everything'. Vyasa employs the words janmadyasya yatah, which comprise the second sutra of the Vedanta-sutra, in the first verse of the Srimad Bhagavatam to establish that Krsna is Brahman, the Absolute Truth. This is clear testimony of the author's own conclusion about the ultimate goal of all Vedic knowledge. <~>Vedanta-sutra 4.1.6. states, adityadi matayah ca angopapatteh: `Reason dictates that the sun and other cosmic manifestations be thought of as originating from the limbs of the Lord'. The `reason' referred to here may be termed (in Western philosophical language) `the argument of design': that because the cosmos is arrayed as if according to design, it is logical to seek a designer as its cause. Scripture explains that the design of the universe (the visvarupa, `universal form') is based upon the eternal transcendental form of Krsna. The sun and the moon are said to be the eyes of the universal form; they derive their splendor from the spiritual eyes of Krsna. In turn, the eyes of all creatures are derived from the eyes of the visvarupa. Krsna is the original designer. He draws the design of the material universe from His personal nonmaterial form, which is the source of everything. The form of the Lord may be meditated upon in this way as long as the soul is embodied in matter. <~>As mentioned, the Mayavadis believe that meditation upon the form of the Lord is to be given up when the soul is at last freed of matter. But Vedanta-sutra 4.1.12 states, aprayanat tatrapi hi drstam: `Scripture reveals that worship of the form of the Lord should be done up to liberation (aprayanat) and even thereafter (tatrapi)'. Baladeva Vidyabhusana writes in his commentary, `The liberated souls are irresistibly drawn to worship the Lord because He is so beautiful and attractive. The force of His beauty compels adoration. A person suffering from jaundice is cured by eating sugar; but he continues eating sugar even after the the cure--not because he has any disease, but because the sugar is sweet. So also is the case of liberated souls and worship of the form of the Lord'. Refutation of other systems of Vedic philosophy The systems of Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga etc. all apparently accept the Veda as authority, and each system puts forward the claim of being the most meaningful formulation of that which is to be learned from the Veda. The second and third chapters of Vedanta-sutra go to considerable length in pointing out the fallacies and shortcomings of these competing philosophies. Nyaya The followers of Gautama (i.e. the Nyaya philosophers) are rejected as being aparigrahah, `they who do not accept the Veda', because they rely on logic rather than on scriptural testimony in defending their theories. Unaided logic has no power to describe the beginning of all things, which is the purpose of Vedanta. Where the senses fail in perceiving the source, logic must resort to guesswork. This in turn gives rise to contradictory speculations even within the camps of the Nyayas and other logicians, such as the Vaisesikas and the Buddhists. Some say atoms are the eternal and only material cause of the universe. Others say the atoms are ultimately temporary and unreal. Others say the atoms are ultimately thoughts. Others say that the void behind the atoms is the only reality. Others say the atoms are simultaneously real and unreal. <~>Vedanta says that the Supreme Personality of Godhead is the material cause. Logicians attempt to defeat this by arguing, `This position makes out the potent (the Lord) and His potency (spirit and matter, which together are the ingredients of creation) to be identical. Thus Vedanta, when examined logically, is shown to hold that the individual soul and God are one and the same. But this contradicts the evidence of the Veda, for instance Svetasvatara Upanisad 4.6-7, wherein the body is compared to a tree and the soul and Supersoul are compared to two birds within the tree. So how can Vedanta philosophy be said to be based upon the statements of the Veda? Nyaya upholds the distinction of God, the souls and matter which is asserted by the Vedic scriptures. Therefore this system is truly Vedic, whereas Vedanta is anti-Vedic'. <~>The Vedic scriptures assert acintya-bhedabheda tattva, not the erroneous notions of Nyaya. A man may hold a stick. The stick is his potency. In one sense, he and the stick are one; but then again they are also different. In the same way the Lord is one and different from His potencies. So while the Lord is the material cause of creation--because the ingredients of creation have their source in Him and are not utterly separate co-existing entities that have no source--the Lord is simultaneously distinct from his energies. Some Vedic statements assert the oneness of the Lord and His energies and others assert the difference. The validity of both viewpoints must be accepted, understood and explained by a true Vedic philosopher. Logicians accept only the Vedic statements of difference, which is like accepting only half a hen. In fact Nyaya philosophers do not accept the Veda at all. Vaisesika This philosophy may be briefly restated as follows. Atoms are eternal and indivisible, possess form and other qualities, and are spherical. There are four kinds of atoms. During the cosmic dissolution, before the creation, they are dormant. At the time of creation, impelled by the invisible fate (adrsta-karma) of the souls, the atoms begin to vibrate and then combine into dyads (molecules of two atoms each). Three dyads combine into triads, and four triads combine into quaternary molecules. In this way larger and larger molecular structures are formed that comprise the stuff of the manifest universe. Atoms, therefore, are the immediate material cause of creation; their initial movement and combination into dyads is the remote material cause. The operative cause is adrsta-karma. The Lord is the destroyer of the material manifestation. He nullifies the connecting force that joins the atoms and thus dissolves the cosmic creation. <~>Vedanta philosophy asserts that the Lord and He alone is the cause of creation. The adrsta-karma theory will not suffice as an explanation for the combination of the atoms, for Vaisesika states that during dissolution, the souls lie dormant without possessing any intelligence. So how can their innate karma influence the atoms? The dormant souls, being inert, are in no way superior to the atoms. Though the Vaisesikas do say that the will of the Lord is the starting point of creation because He awakens the adrsta-karmas, this still does not explain the motion of the atoms and their subsequent combination. <~>Another failing of the Vaisesika philosophy is its reliance upon the samavaya theory to explain why the single atoms form dyads. Samavaya (the theory of intrinsic relationship) is a category of fundamental reality that determines atomic conjunction and the qualities, actions and distinctions inseparably associated with material elements. The Vaisesikas speak of samavaya as eternal and inherent, whereas other relationships (samyoga) such as seen between functionally connected objects (table and chair or automobile and road) are temporary and external. But in a universe that itself is temporary, as the material world is admitted to be also by the Vaisesikas themselves, this appeal to `eternal and inherent' material relationships as the determining factor in the combination of atoms is contradictory. <~>Another weakness is the assignment of qualities such as form, taste, aroma and touch to the atoms. Experience demonstrates that material objects possessing these qualities are temporary; when these objects cease to exist, the qualities associated with them also cease. Since, at the time of the dissolution of the universe, all material qualities cease to exist, it follows that the atoms themselves cease to exist. But in Vaisesika, atoms are held to be eternal. If the Vaisesika philosopher adjusts his doctrine by saying that atoms actually possess no qualities, then he is at a loss to explain the origin of the qualities perceived in the elements the atoms make up. Sankhya The Sankhya philosopers say, `The Upanisads directly glorify our Kapila with the words rsim prasutam kapilam, "He was the great sage Kapila." He spoke the sankhya-smrti as a commentary on the jnana-kanda portion of the Veda, and he firmly approved of the agnihotra-yajnas and other rituals described in the karma-kanda portion. Kapila explained that insentient prakrti is the independent creator of the material universes, just as milk spontaneously creates cheese. If the Vedantists argue that the Supreme Personality of Godhead is the material, operative, formal and final cause of everything, they contradict Kapila, the great Vedic sage. Therefore to truly uphold Vedic tradition, Vedantists should interpret the Vedic texts in such a way that they do not contradict his writings'. <~>But the explanation of prakrti as the cause of creation is not supported by the statements of great sages like Manu and Parasara found in other smrti-sastras. They declare that the material world was manifested from Lord Visnu. The Kapila whom the Sankhya philosophers follow is not a Vedic sage at all. The Padma Purana says, `One Kapila Muni, who was named Vasudeva, taught the Sankhya doctrine fully supported by Vedic evidence to the demigods Brahma and others and the sages Brghu, Asuri and others. But another person named Kapila taught a form of Sankhya that contradicts the Veda. He also has a disciple named Asuri, but this was a different Asuri. This Sankhya is full of false reasoning and bad arguments'. The statement, rsim prasutam kapilam (from Svetasvatara Upanisad 5.2), refers to Vasudeva Kapila who appeared as the son of Kardama Muni and Devahuti. The other Kapila, whom the atheistic Sanhkya philosophers rever, is an imposter. <~>The atheistic Sankhya system is to be completely rejected as non-Vedic, not only because of its doctrine of `prakrti as the cause', but also because it holds that 1) the individual souls are all-pervading consciousness and no more than that; 2) the souls are bound or liberated by the arrangement of prakrti alone--indeed, liberation and bondage are simply features of material existence; 3) there is no being who is the Supreme Soul, the Lord of all; 4) time is not eternal; 5) the five pranas are identical with the five senses. <~>The atheistic Kapila tried to prove with logic that prakrti is both the material and operative cause of creation. Yet his position is illogical and inconsistent. If prakrti is both the material and operative cause, then nothing apart from prakrti has the power to make prakrti act or stop it from acting because it is both the prime mover and first ingredient. But when the logic that `a cause will continue to be seen in its effect' is rigorously pursued, this premise breaks down. If it were so that prakrti is both the material and operative cause, then in the effect (the material creation), the same principle should be observed: that ingredients (e.g. the building materials of a house) spontaneously assemble themselves. Belief in the spontaneous assembly of complex material structures is universally deemed illogical. Moreover, this belief is inconsistent with other statements of the pseudo-Kapila. Prakrti is said elsewhere in the Sankhya-smrti to only become creative when spirit comes near it. Then how is inert matter alone the only cause? This gives rise to a new problem: at the time of devastation, spirit and matter are also near to one another. Why doesn't creation continue at the time of devastation? The Sankhya philosophers may say, `During devastation, the karma of the living entities is not awakened', but there is no provision within their system that prevents it from awakening. <~>Sankhya philosophers give many examples to illustrate how prakrti alone creates, but none are valid. They say, `Just as milk spontaneously becomes yoghurt, rainwater spontaneously becomes both bitter and sweet fruits, grass spontaneously becomes milk in the belly of a cow, and a pile of rice spontaneously gives birth to little scorpions, so inert prakrti alone generates all varieties of creation'. In each of these examples, the factors of the living force (spirit soul) and the superior direction of the Supreme Soul have been excluded. Thus the arguments of the Sankhya philosophers are unintelligent to the point of silliness. <~>The atheist Kapila claimed prakrti to be the final cause (the very purpose) of creation: `First, the living entity enjoys prakrti, then after experiencing her many defects he renounces her and attains liberation'. In other words, souls are conditioned only because of experiencing the attractions of matter, and they are liberated only because of experiencing the defects of matter. Thus it would appear that the soul is a helpless pawn in the grip of matter, subject to bondage or release at her whims. Kapila tried to depict matter's purpose as beneficial because in the end the soul is released by her. But if both bondage and release are up to matter, then a soul so `liberated' may be bound by matter again at any time. <~>Sankhya theory states that prakrti is the equilibrium of the three modes of nature. When the modes compete for dominance over one another, the process of creation begins. But how this upset in the balance of the modes begins is not explained. God does not set it into motion, because God plays no role in Sankhya philosophy (isvarasiddheh, `God has not been proved', said the pseudo-Kapila). Even time cannot be the reason, because Kapila said, dik-kalav akasadibhyah: `Space and time are manifested from ether', i.e. time is a much later effect of a creation already set into motion. The spirit souls also play no part, because they are neutral and aloof from prakrti. <~>There are many more strange contradictions in the statements of the pseudo-Kapila. In one place he is quoted as saying, `Spirit is conscious, for it is different from matter'. In another place he says, `Because it has no qualities at all, the spirit soul must be devoid of consciousness'. He asserts that the souls who understand they are different from matter are liberated and those who do not understand this are conditioned. But elsewhere he says that material bondage occurs whenever matter approaches the spirit soul, who then becomes pasu-vat, `just like a helpless animal'. (Text 24982) Vedanta -- Part 4 of 4 parts Yoga The adherents of Patanjala Yoga cite passages from the Upanisads that praise the practice of yoga to support their claim that the meaning of Vedanta can be grasped through the Yoga-smrti (the Patanjala Yoga Sutra and allied writings). But they hold that in order to use Patanjali's philosophy as the key for unlocking the highest meaning of the Veda, the Vedic scriptures should not be interpreted in a literal sense. This is because the Yoga-smrti: 1) depicts the individual souls and the Supreme Soul as being only all-pervading consciousness, with no further characteristics; 2) says that prakrti is the original independent cause of all causes; 3) says that liberation is simply the cessation of pain, obtainable only through the Patanjala system; 4) presents theories of sensory perception and the workings of the mind that are different from the explanations given in the Veda. Therefore, whenever contradictions are seen between the Yoga-smrti and the Veda on these points, the Patanjalas argue that the Vedic version must give way to the version of Yoga. <~>Vedanta-sutra 2.1.3 replies, etena yoga-prayuktah: `As Sankhya was refuted, so also is Yoga'. Sankhya and Yoga are closely allied systems. As they share the same philosophy of purusa and prakrti, they share the same philosophical defects in their understanding of the origin of the universe. Though the Upanisads do employ the terms `sankhya' and `yoga', it is wrong to assume that the speculations of pseudo-Kapila and Patanjali are being praised. `Sankya' simply means knowledge, and `yoga' simply means meditation. There is no possible harmony between Yoga and Vedanta on the subject of liberation, which Yoga claims is attained only through discrimination of spirit from matter. Vedanta teaches that liberation is attainable only by knowledge of the Supreme Lord and by His Divine Grace. Though the Yoga-smrti is not atheistic in that it admits the existence of God in several sutras, these theistic sutras are not essential to the system as a whole, which is mostly based upon principles imported from atheistic Sankhya philosophy. Karma-mimamsa Vedanta-sutra 3.2.41 cites the viewpoint of Jaimini (the author of the Mimamsa Sutra) on the fruits of karma. He thinks that karma alone awards fruits to the performer of Vedic rituals, because after an act is completed, it leaves behind a force called apurva. After a lapse of time, this apurva force gives the reward that is consistent with the karma to the performer of the ritual. Where there is good karma, there is good fruit. Where there is no good karma, there is no good fruit. Jaimini concludes that it is wrong to think that karma is rewarded by God. Dharma comes from the Lord, karma comes from the Lord, but the fruit comes from karma itself. <~>Badarayana Vyasa gives his reply to this in Vedanta-sutra 3.2.42: purvam tu badarayanah hetu vyapadesat, `But Badarayana holds that the Supreme Lord is the bestower of rewards, because that is the version of the Vedic scriptures'. The Lord is proclaimed in the scriptures as the cause of all causes. Therefore it is unintelligent to isolate apurva--an unintelligent material principle without any force of its own--as the cause of fruitive rewards. Apurva is given no such credit in the scriptures. If it is argued that the demigods are the givers of karmic fruits, and therefore the Lord Himself need not be dragged down to their level of being a mere order-supplier, the reply is that the Lord is the indwelling ruler of all these inferior demigods. They punish or reward only as He impels them to do within. <~>Vedanta-sutra 3.4.2-7 cites Sage Jaimini's objection to the cultivation of brahma-vidya (knowledge of Brahman) as recommended in the Upanisads. He says that vidya is subordinate to karma. Indeed, whatever glory is given to vidya (purification, elevation and liberation) is really the result of performance of Vedic karma-kanda rituals. Worship of Visnu is also accomplished only by karma. The passages in the Veda recommending renunciation (sannyasa) apply only the enfeebled, blind and crippled persons who are unable to perform rituals. It is seen in the sastra that the best among the learned and wise men of old used to perform karma. In fact, there are direct sastric statements declaring that vidya is but an aspect of karma. The Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad 4.4.2. says that when a man dies, his vidya and karma take hold of him and carry him to his next destination--therefore, since vidya cooperates with karma to yield results, it is subordinate. Sastra directs persons having vidya to perform karma--therefore also vidya is subordinate to karma. There is also an injunction directing a person to perform scripturally authorized karma through his whole life. Therefore vidya is to be cultivated through karma, not that karma is to be renounced so that vidya may be cultivated. <~>Sage Badarayana Vyasadeva begins his rebuttal of Jaimini's karma-mimamsa arguments with Vedanta-sutra 3.4.8. It is true that vidya is cultivated by karma, but it is not true that therefore karma is greater than vidya. Vidya is the goal of karma. When the end is accomplished, the means is no longer required. Some authorities like Janaka continued karma after attaining vidya solely for the benefit of mankind. But many great sages (Yajnavalkya and the Kavaseyas) abandoned karma and retired to the forest to devote themselves to vidya alone. Regarding Vedic statements that vidya is just an aspect of karma, these do not refer to Brahma-vidya but to specific vidyas related to specific rituals (e.g. the udgitha-vidya, the science of chanting Vedic hymns). Regarding statements that vidya and karma cooperate to yield results, these are like the statement, `I sold a cow and a goat and received 100 coins'. This means that 90 coins were received for the valuable cow and only 10 coins were received for the not-so-valuable goat. Similarly, though both the fruits of vidya and karma accrue at the time of death, they are not the same fruit, not are they two fruits of equal value. The value of vidya is much greater. The statement (from Taittiriya Upanisad) that directs one in knowledge to perform karma is addressed to the brahmanistha, he who is well-versed in the Veda. But a brahmanistha is merely a sabda-jnanin, a knower of words. He is not a Brahmavit, a knower of Brahman (God). A Brahmavit is an upasaka (enlightened devotee), and his vidya is anubhava (consciousness of intense joy). The difference between a brahmanistha and a Brahmavit is like the difference between one who says `honey is sweet' and one who tastes honey. The Brahmavit is a naiskarmi (he does not perform rituals). He engages in transcendental acts of pure devotion to Lord Visnu. The claim that puja to Lord Visnu is merely karma is hereby refuted. The statement directing a person to perform karma throughout his life is a nonspecific recommendation. It does not apply to everyone. And even when it does apply, it is meant as a glorification of vidya, because by vidya a person is saved from the binding effects of karma, even though he continues to perform karma through his whole life. For example, a saintly devotee retains his body (the vehicle of active or prarabdha-karma) to spread the glories of the Lord throughout the world. But in this embodied activity, he is liberated. <~>In Vedanta-sutra 2.3.15, the science of the potency of sound is explained. The words which in ordinary use are the names of things moveable and immovable are really all names of God. All things get their particular names because He abides within all things. All words have power of denotation (tad-bhava) because they are nothing else than names of God, although common men do not know this. Only one who understands Vedanta understands that every word is really the name of the Supreme Lord. The karma-mimamsa theory of sabda, which holds that the personal God is but a formal manifestation of impersonal sound, is hereby refuted. There are other refutations of Karma-mimamsa misconceptions in the Vedanta-sutra, but as they are of a more specific or technical nature, they will not be mentioned here. Besides the five other systems of Vedic philosophy, Vedanta-sutra refutes four systems of Buddhist thought, the theories of the Jains and the Pasupata and Sakti schools. (Text 25662)