Hindu Sculptures The earliest Hindu stone sculptures of Bengal originated in the late Kusana period (3rd-4th century AD). With the stone sculptures we have to include, no doubt, a few terracotta sculptures which are of great interest, such as the four-armed Mahisamardini figure from Sarsabaz (Bogra), now in the Mahasthan Museum. This is the most magnificient early image of the deity not only from Bengal but from the Indian Subcontinent. (Fig-1) Perahps this unique image clearly points to the reason why the goddess Durga-Mahisasuramardini became so prominent and popular in Bengal and has maintained the same status even up to this age.

The Puranas, however, frequently describe Brahma with four heads and four arms. A fully developed form of Brahma with four heads (three shown in relief), four arms and with beard and moustache, is seen in the seated 11th-12th century Brahma image from Dinajpur district, now in the Dinajpur Museum of Bangladesh. (Fig-3) In the four hands the deity holds clockwise the rosary (aksamala), the sacrificial ladle (shruk), a second sacrificial spoon (sruva) and a waterjar (kamandalu). The deity sits on a double-petalled lotus, with a small lotus below his right foot. A duck is shown with two devotees on the pedestal. Brahma is accompanied by two four-armed seated female divinities, perhaps Savitri and Sarasvati. Kirtimukha is shown on top with two Vidyadharas. Later forms of Brahma are also shown without beard and moustache.

The radish is a special attribute of Ganesha images from Bihar-Bengal. A snake forms the sacred thread (yajnopavita) of the deity, and a playful rat (musika) is shown as his mount (vahana) on the pedestal. The second most important and interesting seated image of Ganesha is from Narayanpur (Comilla), now in the bangladesh national museum (BNM), Dhaka, and is dated in the 4th regnal year of the Pala ruler mahipala i (c 11th century). (Fig-4) The large, beautiful image holds clockwise in his four hands a rosary (aksmala), a radish with leaves (mulaka), a battle-axe (parashu) and a pot of sweets (modaka-bhanda). On top bunches of mangoes are shown with leaves, a special feature of the Ganesha images from Benagal. The rat (musika) is shown below his right foot.

In the third stage Visnu's back hands are raised upwards holding two attributes and instead of Gadadevi and Chakrapurusa his two consorts, Shri or Laksmi and Sarasvati appear. This is evident in the Baghaura (Comilla), image of Visnu, now in BNM, dated in the 3rd regnal year of Mahipala I. The deity holds in clockwise his four hands: varada-mudra (with a small lotus?), gada, chakra and shankha. He wears a kirita-mukuta and a long vanamala. Shri or Laksmi stands to his right and Sarasvati playing a vina to his left. Garuda has appeared now and is shown at the bottom on the pedestal. Perhaps the most interesting image of Visnu in the whole subcontinent is a seventh century sculpture from Lakshmanakati (Barisal), now in situ and being worshipped. (Fig-5) The two consorts of Visnu, Laksmi and Sarasvati, appear at this early stage.

The images of the incarnations were also illustrated around the central Visnu image, as in the two Visnu images now in the Bangladesh National Museum (see Haque, pls 23, 26). There are, no doubt, some differences in the iconographical features of the Visnu images from the Southeast of Bengal compared to those of the North of Bengal; the sacred thread (upavita) of the deity from S-E is short, the jewel Kaustubha is shown on the chest and Garuda is mostly shown in the centre of the pedestal, etc.

A certain group of Visnu (?) images are unique and they form an iconographic unit by themselves. The deity is shown under a snake canopy like Sankarsana (Balarama), but holding the attributes shankha, chakra, gada and padma, as shown in the image from Surohar (Dinajpur), now in VRM. A two-armed meditative figure is shown on top.

In a 12th century image from Ganeshpur (Rajshahi), now in VRM, a four-armed figure of Shiva is in a very graceful abhanga position, urdhvalinga, and accompanied by Mahakala and Ganga at the right and Gauri and Nandin at the left. Ganga and Gauri are without their respective vahanas. The bull, vehicle of Shiva, is shown on the left at the bottom of the pedestal.

The Sena rulers had a four-(five-) headed and ten-armed seated image of Shiva called Sadashiva, engraved on their royal seal. But the image was present in Bengal before the Senas. A beautiful inscribed image of Sadashiva (dated in the 14th regnal year of the Pala ruler Gopala IV comes from Bangarh (Rajibpur, Dinajpur), now in IM, Calcutta. In his ten hands the deity holds different attributes. Mahakala, Nandin and the bull (vrsa) are shown on the pedestal. (Fig-10)

The other popular image of Shiva is the Uma-Maheshvara-murti; the nomenclature is attested by an inscription. Maheshvara is either two-or four-armed, Uma is two-armed. Maheshvara's bull is shown below his right foot, Uma's lion below her left foot. The10th-11th century image from Joradeul (Dhaka), now in BNM, is an excellent two-armed Maheshvara holding a small flower in the right hand and pressing the left breast of Uma with the left hand. (Fig-12) Both the deities are shown inside a cave, perhaps indicating Mount Kailasa, and on top in the middle a meditative Shiva is shown with his bull and other deities. An illustration of trishula intertwined with a snake is at the right side of Shiva.

Interesting images from Bengal depicting the marriage of Shiva and Parvati (these and similar North Indian images are wrongly called Kalyanasundara-murti by art historians) are well-known, and of these the 12th century Sankarbandha (Dhaka) image, now in BNM, is quite spectacular, depicting the bride and bridegroom and various other deities on the back-plate. Perhaps a meditative image of Shiva is shown at the extreme top. The two mounts of the deities, viz. the bull and the lion, are also present.

An excellent image of the Androgyne form of Shiva, called Ardhanarishvara, ie half of Shiva and half of Parvati, from Purapara (Dhaka), now in VRM. This is a beautiful image, the only one of its kind from Bengal, worked out in detail on the blackstone and is dated in the 12th century. (Fig-13)

In the later period Surya is accompanied by his two queens, Rajni and Niksubha besides Mahashveta or sometimes by the eight planetary deities (grahas), viz. Soma, Mangala, Budha, Brhaspati, Shukra, Shani, Rahu and Ketu. These may be seen in the beautiful image from Gopinathpur (Bogra), now in VRM. (Fig-14) Sometimes eleven or twelve Adityas (same as Surya) are shown around the Sun-god, (see for example the inscribed Kulkuri image, Faridpur), in BNM. The Bairhatta (Dinajpur, West Bengal) seated and inscribed image of the Sun-god, now in IMC, is a unque figure. The image of Surya with the other eight planetary deities was quite a popular figure in Bengal as is evidenced from several sculptures of this type. Generally Ganesha is shown with the planetary deities. A few images of Revanta, the son of Surya, riding a horse and accompanied by a dog, were created in Bengal.

A Shiva-lingam is shown on top of the deity. Sometimes the Snake-goddess is shown with four hands, of which the 11th century image from Khidrapalli (Bogra), now in VRM, is unique. This image, partially damaged, sits in a cross-legged position (baddha-padmasana) on a huge lotus holding clockwise: a rosary, a snake, a water-pot and a manuscript and is surrounded by ten nagis with folded hands; four nagis with folded hands are shown on the pedestal also. A large pot (manasar ghat) is shown below and a Shiva-lingam on top. (Fig-15) The Malda Museum (West Bengal) also has a unique image of the Snake-goddess (partially damaged), with an elephant shown below the right leg of the goddess (nagendra-vahini).

Parvati  Another variety of Parvati from Bengal is unique. In this illustration the four-armed Devi is holding clockwise: a fruit, a collyrium stick, a mirror and with the lower left hand on the head of Karttikeya, stands on a lotus with an iguana (godha) below. Generally Bhattasali and others call this image Gauri, but credit goes to M Th de Mallmann for calling this image Lalita after the description of the Agni-Purana. (Fig- 17)

There are two types of the image with an iguana as a mount; one is an ascetic type where the Devi holds clockwise: varada-mudra, aksamala, tridanda and a water-pot; the other is a bridal form mentioned above. The iguana is present in both cases. Banana plants, lions and antelopes occur in many cases. There are several forms of Parvati from Bengal.

Durga  There are several images of Durga with four or more arms, seated or standing, with a lion mount. But as mentioned earlier the Durga Mahisasura-mardini was the most popular goddess from Bengal. Mostly the goddess is eight-armed and belongs to the tenth-eleventh century. The ten-armed form occurs quite late. The Malda Museum (West Bengal) possesses several excellent images of eight-armed Durga Mahisasura-mardini.

An extraordinary form of Durga Mahisasura-mardini called Navadurga from Porsha (Naogaon), now in VRM, shows besides the central figure, eight other figures all eighteen-armed. Unfortunately the head of the central image is damaged. (Fig-19) The image is dated in the 12th century.

But most popular, no doubt, was Chamunda or Charchika, befitting the Tantric tradition of Bengal. Several interesting sculptures of the deity, seated or dancing, were found mostly in North Bengal, but the most magnificient figure, no doubt, is from Rampal (Munshiganj), now in BNM. (Fig-21) The twelve-armed deity holding the elephant skin and various other attributes dances on a corpulent Preta and is surrounded by a host of two-armed dancing figures. The image is to be dated in the 12th century. Sometimes Chamunda is shown seated on a Preta under a Banyan tree (Vata-vrksa) with severed heads below her feet. A unique form of this deity, from Dubail, Tanor (Rajshahi), now in VRM, (see Haque, pl 216; Rahman, pl 215) riding on an ass is called Pisitasana (flesh-eater) in the label inscription. The deity holds in her four hands clockwise: a snake, a sword, a shield and a skull-cup.

It is be dated in the 11th century. One should refer to the elegant, two-armed standing Parvati image from Muhammadpur (Comilla), now in IM, Calcutta. The five deities, such as, Ganesha, Brahma, Shiva, Visnu and Karttikeya are shown on top of the back-plate (see Haque, pl 178).

The most magnificient image of Gauri or Parvati ever found in Bengal is the so-called Mahamaya image from Kagajipara, Vikrampur (Munshiganj), now in BNM, and undoubtedly a great creation of the Sena period. (Fig-22) The four-armed Devi (Gauri?) meditates in front of a huge Shiva-lingam showing dhyana-mudra with the two front hands and holding a rosary in the upper right hand and a manuscript in the upper left hand. The iconography of this image is debated. DC Bhattacharyya called the image Apitakucha (see Haque, p 301).

Buddha  Mention may be made here of the largest sandstone image so far found in Bengal of the Buddha, standing in samapada position on a lotus, showing abhaya-mudra (gesture of assurance) in the right hand and holding the hem of his upper garment with the other. Discovered at a mound called rupban mura, it is now preserved at the Mainamati Museum. (Fig-24) The image is 2.44 m high and belongs to c 7th century. However, the earliest stone Buddha figures are to be dated in the 5th century. The graceful standing, large (107 cm) image of Chunar sandstone showing Buddha in abhaya-mudra is from Bihrail (Rajshahi), now in VRM and is partially damaged. The second early image (6th century) is also standing, but is in varada-mudra (boon-granting gesture). This small image (40 cm) was found in the ruins of bhasu vihara, and is now preserved at the Mahasthan Museum.

In the Paharpur monastery, besides the large burnt bronze image no stone image of the Buddha was found. The only stone image found in the central temple is of Avalokiteshvara, holding a full-blown lotus in the left hand and perhaps varada-mudra in the damaged right hand. The aureole of the deity is shown with a beautiful lotus design surrounded by beads. Avalokiteshvara is attended upon by Tara (face damaged) at the right and Hayagriva at the left. The three deities stand each on a lotus against an oval-shaped prabhamandala.

Of the Buddha images of the Pala period mention should be made of the huge (122 cm ´ 84 cm) black basalt image from Satimandangi, Bochaganj (Dinajpur, Bangladesh), now in situ. This magnificient c 9th century image is badly mutilated. (Fig-25)

The Buddha is shown seated inside a shikhara-type of temple (Mahabodhi at Bodhgaya). A tiny figure of Amoghasiddhi is shown on top. Four seated male deities attend upon him. Below on the pedestal the Sarnath symbol, lions and adorants are shown. Iconographically this is an interesting image, but it is missing.

The final development of the Buddha image is to be noticed in a few elaborate sculptures, one of which is the Sibbati (Bagerhat) image now in the Kamalapur Buddhist monastery, Dhaka, and another is the Betagi, Rangunia (Chittagong) image, now preserved in the Ratnankur Vihar at Betagi. The Betagi Buddha is attended upon by Maitreya to the right and Avalokiteshvara to the left. The Buddha is shown in bhumisparsha-mudra inside the Mahabodhi temple at Bodhgaya. (Fig-27) Both the images should be dated in the 12th-13th century.

In Mahayana Buddhism, and in Vajrayana or Tantrayana Buddhism five Cosmic or Transcendent Buddhas, viz. Amitabha, Aksobhya, Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava and Vairochana, were introduced. To each of them belong several Bodhisatvas, both male and female. Each Cosmic Buddha (wrongly and popularly called Dhyani-Buddha) is the Lord of a family (kulesha). Shakyamuni who was a supreme Buddha, lost his supremacy in Vajrayana or Tantrayana Buddhism and became subordinate to Aksobhya, one of the five Cosmic Buddhas. In various stone sculptures from Bengal of a later period he is shown under the Cosmic Buddha like that of a Bodhisatva. Compare for example, the figure of Shakyamuni descending from the Trayastringsha Heaven from Kirtoil, Manda (Naogaon), now in VRM, where the five Cosmic Buddhas are shown above, Aksobhya in the middle, which shows that Aksobhya is the Sire of Shakyamuni. The image belongs to c 11th century. (Fig-28)

The Buddha is shown seated inside the arch of the Mahabodhi temple holding a jewel (ratna) in his right hand, and a jewel is also shown in his usnisa. Seven jewels (sapta ratnas) are also shown in front of the pedestal. This unique image should belong to the 11th century. (Fig-30)

Avalokiteshvara  Besides the Buddha a large number of Buddhist images were produced in Bengal, especially in the Pala-Chandra period. For creating the Buddhist images the sculptors followed the well-known Buddhist iconographic text Sadhanamala. Of the Buddhist images the most popular deity was Bodhisatva Avalokiteshvara, who is shown either seated or standing on a lotus, two, four, six-armed or twelve-armed. When two-armed, and this is the common form, he shows varada-mudra in the right hand and holds the stalk of a full-blown lotus in the left hand.

He wears a jata-makuta, upavita and various pieces of jewelry. When seated he sits in the lalitaksepa or lalitasana position, and while standing he stands in abhanga position. The Sadhanamala describes various forms of Avalokiteshvara and calls the deity Lokanatha, Lokeshvara, etc of which the form Khasarpana-Lokeshvara is quite common. In this form Lokeshvara is accompanied by the deities Tara, Sudhanakumara, Bhrkuti and Hayagriva. Sometimes the ugly ghost (preta) Suchimukha (needle-mouthed) is shown sitting below and begging nectar from the merciful Lord. For a beautiful form of this type see the Mulchar (Munshiganj) image, now in the VRM, dated c 11th century. (Fig-31)

The Transcendent Buddha Amitabha (to whose family Avalokiteshvara belongs) is shown twice, once in the jata-makuta of the Bodhisatva and then in the middle of the five transcendent Buddhas above. For a standing image of this type compare the VRM image found at Sonarang (Munshiganj).

A gracefully standing six-armed image from Namuja (Bogra), now in the Mahasthan Museum, may be described as Sugati-sandarshana-Lokeshvara. The image is quite early (c 9th century). The deity holds in his right hands varada-mudra, ratna and aksamala, and in the left hands tridanda, padma and kalasa. Tara, Bhrkuti and Hayagriva accompany him, and the preta Suchimukha is also shown. (Fig-32)

A very interesting image of Manjushri standing in a graceful abhanga position and attended upon by the two deities Suryaprabha and Chandraprabha was discovered in the village Hatpukuria (Noakhali), and is now in BNM. The image belongs to c 11th century.

A few excellent seated images of the Buddhist god of riches, Jambhala were found in Bengal, mostly in North Bengal, and of these mention may be made of the image from Bhanpur (Godagari, Rajshahi), now in VRM; and the excellent image from Pabna, now in the Mahasthan Museum. (Fig-35) The images belong to c 11th century. Of the other male deities mention may be made of the two-armed deity Heruka from Shubhapur, Devidvar (Comilla), now in BNM.

The deity is dancing on a lotus, wearing a garland of human heads and holding a khatvanga with banner. The image belongs to c 11th century (Bhattasali, pl XII; Sunithananda, fig 93). The other dancing image of Heruka, but on a human body, is now preserved at the Mainamati Museum. (Fig-36) A badly damaged image of the other deity Hevajra dancing in yab yum (united) position with his Prajna came from Paharpur. A rare but very interesting image of the Buddhist deity Namasangiti in his female form has recently been acquired by the Bangladesh National Museum from Vikrampur (Munshiganj). The three-headed and twelve-armed deity sits in a cross-legged position inside a chaitya. This unique image is to be dated c 11th century.

Buddhist Female Deities  Of the Buddhist female deities the most prominent is Tara. She is two-armed, showing varada-mudra with the right hand and holding the stalk of a blue lily (nilotpala) in the left hand. She is generally of green complexion, hence called Shyama or Green Tara, and sometimes she is white and called Shveta or White Tara. Generally she is shown seated in the lalitasana or lalitaksepa position, but she is also shown standing; for example, compare the early image of Tara from Sukhabaspur (Munsiganj), now in BNM (see Bhattasali, pl XX; Alam, fig 49); or the later image from Rampal (Munsiganj), now also in BNM, where the gracefully standing deity is attended upon by Ashokakanta-Marichi to her right and Ekajata to her left, and the five Transcendent Buddhas are shown on top with Amoghasiddhi in the middle. Tara belongs to the family of Amoghasiddhi. (Fig-37)

Marichi is of different types; either she has a normal human face, or three faces of which one is a Sow-face, or three faces of which two are Sow-faces. She is two-, six-, eight-, ten- or twelve-armed. A three-headed (left head of a Sow) and eight-armed deity from Panditsar (Pandisar?, Bhederganj, Faridpur) is now in BNM. (Fig-39) The goddess stands in pratyalidha position on a large lotus placed on a chariot drawn by seven pigs with the head of Rahu as the charioteer, inside a Chaitya with Ashoka branches on it. In her eight hands she holds clockwise: needle, arrow, elephant-goad, thunderbolt (damaged), Ashoka-branch, bow, thread and threatening gesture (tarjani mudra), and is accompanied by four Sow-faced companions, Vadali, Vattali, Varali and Varahamukhi. Marichi belongs to the Vairocana family. The image belongs to the 11th century. Similar eight-armed images of Marichi are preserved in the Varendra Research Museum and the Mainamati Museum. Eight-armed Marichi images of stone are common in Bengal.

A unique figure of the Buddhist goddess only available from East Bengal is Parnashabari, ie the Tribal woman wearing leaves as her garment. The pot-bellied deity standing in pratyalidha position trampling down two male figures representing diseases is three-headed and eight-armed. She holds clockwise in her six hands: elephant-goad, arrow, thunder-bolt, leaves, bow and tarjani-mudra. She is accompanied by two figures, one riding a donkey. Below on the pedestal is shown a crawling figure with an elephant head and holding sword and shield. The figure represents no doubt an obstacle or vighna. On top five Transcendent Buddhas are shown with Amoghasiddhi in the middle. The two images, one from Vajrayogini and the other from Naynanda, are now in BNM, and belong to c 11th century. (Fig-40)

Another dynamic image of the same type was wrongly identified as Bhrkuti-Tara by Bhattasali and unfortunately this identification is widely accepted even today. (Fig-42) The deity (upper right corner damaged) originated at Bhavanipur (Munshiganj) and belongs to the early 11th century. In this figure the deity holds in her eight hands the following attributes: trident, sword, thunderbolt, noose and hatchet, the other three attributes are damaged. A crawling elephant-headed two-armed figure of vighna (generally identified as Ganesha) is shown on the pedestal. Because of certain irregular features, viz. prominent teeth in the left face, horrible laughing expression with fangs in the right face, the effigy of the Cosmic Buddha in the tiara and the presence of the elephant-headed figure on the pedestal, it is doubtful if the deity can be identified as Mahapratisara. The figure has recently been identified as an aspect of Marichi.

A beautiful and interesting standing image of Parshvanatha is preserved in the Dinajpur Museum (Bangladesh). The deity stands in kayotsarga position on a lotus under a seven-hooded snake-canopy. Dikpalas are shown riding animals around him, and the goddess Chakreshvari sits below on the pedestal. The image may be dated c 11th century. (Fig-44) Another interesting figure is of the Tirthankara Shantinatha from Mandoil, Godagari, and now in VRM. The deity is surrounded by twenty-four seated Tirthankaras. The nine planetary deities (Navagrahas) with Ganesha are shown on the pedestal. The image may belong to the 11th century. [Gouriswar Bhattacharya]