THE BOOK WAS DRENCHED OU_1 58959 > THE VISHNUDHAEMOTTAEA THE VISHNUDHARMOTTARA (PART III) A. Treatise on Indian Painting and Image-Making By STELLA KRAMRISCH, Ph.D. Lecturer in Fine Arts (Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture), Calcutta University Second Revised and Enlarged Edition CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1928 PBJKIED AXD PUBLISHED BT BHTJpENORALAL BANERJEB AT TBB CALCUTTA CNlVERilTT PfiEgfl, iENATfi HOUSE, CALCUTTA. To ABANINDRANATH TAGORE PREFACE Mr. A. K. Maitra, Director of the Varendra Research Society, has drawn my attention to the Vishnudharmottara, .as it deals rather fully with prescriptions for painting and image-making. I owe him many valuable suggestions. With regard to helping me with the translation I am in- debted to Mr. Rakhohari Chatterji, M.A., a former student of mine. Prof. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar, and Prof. Dr. B. M. Barua of the Calcutta University have assisted me in revising the translation and reading the proofs of the second edition. Without the collaboration of all these scholars the translation of so technical a treatise would not have been possible. I express my sincere gratitude tc each of them. STELLA KRAMBISCH INTRODUCTION " He who paints waves, flames t smoke and streamers fluttering in the air, according to the movvnirnt of the wind, should be con- sidered a great painter." Vishnudharmottara, Oh. 43, V. 28, " Painting is the best of all arts, conducive to dharma, pleasure, ircalih and emancipation. 11 gives the greatest pleasure, when placed in a house ." Vishnudharmoltara, Ch. 43, V. 38. INTRODUCTION The Vishnudharmottara is a Supplement or Appendix to the Yishnupurana. Part III of the Vishnudharmottara gives the fullest account hitherto known) of the various branches, methods and ideals of Indian painting. It deals not only with its religious aspect but also, and to a far greater extent, with its secular employment. It proclaims the joy that colours and forms and the representation of things seen and imagined produce. Speaking of artistic representation in relation to religion, it points out their mutual limitations : " Vajra said The Supreme Deity has been described as devoid of form, smell and emotion and destitute of sound and touch so how this form can be (made) of Him ? Markandeya replied Prakrti and Vikrti (come into existence) through the (variation in) the form of the Supreme Soul. That form of Him (which is) scarcely to be perceived is called Prakrti. The whole universe should be known as the Vikrti (i.e,., modification) of Him, when endowed with form. Worship and meditation (of the Supreme Being) are possible (only when He is) endowed with form The best position of the (Supreme) Soul (however) is to be imagined without form. For seeing the worlds (He) possesses eyes closed in meditation M1 This concession being made, life in its entirety becomes fit for artistic representation', and the realm of imagination is as close within the reach of the artists, as nature that surrounds him, for tradition guides him in the one case and observation checks and inspires him ini the other, Part III, Ch. 40, verses 1-19, 4 TNTEODUCTION The Vishijudharmottara admits hit several places, that it is but repeating and compiling from older sources. These being lost to us, our text represents the earliest exhaustive account of the theory of painting. Its date can) be ascertained partly from chapters being copied from earlier sources, and partly from a custom of setting up statues to renowned personages with which the text deals. Vyasa, the reputed author of the Mahabharata, was worshipped as a deity. Directions as to the making of the image of Vyasa are given in the chapters dealing with image-making, consecutive to the chapters on painting. 1 Directions are also given for making images of Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, Sahadeva, Krshna, of Sumamta, Jaimini, Paila, Vaisampayana (the four disciples of Vyasa), and of DevakI, Jasoda, Balarama, RukminI, Satyabhama, Saml3& and Aniruddha. At the time of the compilation of the Vishnu- dharmottara the Mahabhfefata must have been held sacred to such an extent! tMft not only its heroes, but also its so-called author aaH yjttfs* disciples were worshipped as deities. Valmiki, too,/'Mjgjs worshipped as a deity and how to make his image is att* told in the Vishnudharrnottara. 2 The complete bdcM of the Bamayapa being not anterior to the Mahafcharata, 8 and the Mahabharata in its present shape boiflg assigned to a period between 200 and 400 A.Dr/FffiJize Vishiiudharrnottara cannot date earlier than tSellBEth century A.D. This date is also evident from th^E of the Vishnupurana, of which the Vishijudharmottara is just an appendix. The Vishnupurana is based in its genealogical accounts oru those of the Bhavishya, Matsyaand Vayu ' The Vayu borrowed the Bhavishya's augmented account about or soon after the year 1 Part III, Ch. 85, verses 65-79. e Part III, Ch. 85, verses 63-64. 3 Hopkini, Great Epic of India, pp. 58-84. INTRODUCTION 5 330 or 335 A.D. 1 The Vish?uipurana cannot, therefore, be earlier than the 2nd half of the 4th century A.D. The lower age-limit of the Vishnudharmottara must however be pushed still further. For Part III, Chapter 27, dealing with colours, is borrowed verbatim from Bharata's Natyasastra, and the number of rasa's in the Vishnu- dharmottara is nine, while only eight are dealt with by Bharata. The upper age-limit of the text may be conceived from an iconographic peculiarity of its pantheon. In it every god, hero, philosopher or sage finds his place some- where round the central figure of Vishnu, the God Supreme. Yet no mention is made of Sankara, who up to the present day is worshipped in the form of an image. Had Sankara existed at the time of the compilation of the chapters on painting, the author would have incorporated him into the Vaishnava pantheon in spite of his being ail incarnation of Siva. The chapters of the Vishiiudharmottara dealing with painting must have been compiled in the seventh century, contemporary with the latest paintings of Ajanta ; and so we get acquainted with the theories prevalent at the time of the full maturity of their practice. But it must not be forgotten that our text is but a compilation! and that its recipes and prescriptions go back to a remoter past. Valuable as these various kinds of information are, we have to be aware, that like all theories they are derived from, arid subservient to, the practice. They left every freedom to the artist, to work, as the text says, ' according to his own intellect/ What Sri Kumara modestly states in his Silparatna (verse 14) also holds good for our text : " I describe the methods of Chitra for the benefit of the ignorant." Painting in ancient India, especially in the Gupta 1 Pargiter, Dynasties of tb Kali Age, Intro., pp. xiii and xvi. 6 INTRODUCTION age, was of great importance in the life of the citizen. The interest taken in pictures varied with the education of the spectator. " The masters praise the rekha's (^fl) (delineation and articulation of form), the connoisseurs praise the display of light and shade (sf&TT), women like the display of ornaments, to the rest of the public richness of colours appeals. " The artists, therefore, should take great care, that the painting may be appreciated by every one. There was ample opportunity for con- templating and appreciating paintings. From the great hall built by the Bodhisat according to the Maha-Ummagga-Jataka 1 painted with beautiful pictures, and the subterranean palace of the same Jataka, with its stucco-coated walls, bearing paintings of the splendour of Sakka, the zones of Mt. Sumeru, the sea and the ocean, the four continents, the Himavat, the lake Anotatta, the vermilion mountain, the sun; and the moon, the heaven of the great kings with the six heavens of sense and their divisions, to the picture-gallery (cittagara) in the royal pleasure-grove of Prasenajit, King of Kosala, where many people used to go, amongst them the Bhikkhunis, who were forbidden to do so 2 - to those many portraits and landscapes painted by artists of the royal and the servant class alike, as mentioned in the Ratnavall, Baghuvamsa, Sakuntala and Uttara-Rama- charita we see an unfading delight taken in the magic and the sensuousness of painting. Wherever there was a festival, painting enhanced its mood " from the city-gate to the palace, and from the palace to his own house, on both sides of the road, he erected lattice-work, and covered all over with mats, covered all with pictures, scattered flowers upon the ground, hung flags and banners." 3 Jataka, Vol. VI, pp. 159 and 223. Vinaya, Vol. IV, Pachittiya, No. XLI, p. 289, INTRODUCTION 7 As permanent or temporary decoration, on the floors, on the walls and ceilings of private houses, palaces and temples, and in the streets, paintings instructed and en- livened the mind of the public. Even religious teachers used painting as the most popular means of communi- cation), that could be understood by the illiterate and the child. "There is a class of Brahmanical teachers, kniowiu by the name of Nakha. They make a (portable) framework upon which they cause to be drawn) a variety of pictures, depicting scenes of good and evil destinies, of fortunes and misfortunes, and causing the labels to be inscribed: 'By doing this deed one attains this,' 'By doing that, one attains that/ thus showing different destinies, they wander about with these pictures." l That every cultured maru had in his house a drawing board, and a vessel for holding brushes and other requisites of painting is evident from Vatsy ay ana's Kamasutra,. 2 But one should not have a painting by one's own hand in one's house, says the Vishnudharmottara. Certain objects only are to be painted in private residences, suggesting love, gaiety and peace, while the supernatural and the terrible aspects of life were reserved for the walls of temples and royal audience-halls. The paintings were executed in various types ; wall- paintings, pictures on board and on canvas were equally frequent (cf. Kamasutra and Vishnudharmottara). The latter were sometimes in the shape of rolls, exhibiting continuous representation. Such a roll was spread out by a spy of Canakya before the people in Candanadasa's house and was exhibited by him with songs. 8 If framed, 1 Sftrattha-Pakaainl, Siamese edition, Part IT, p. 398. Of. Barua's History of Pre -Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, p. 110 ; Maskari-Go'sala's Early Life, Calcutta Review, June, 1927, pp. 364-366. 3 Benares ed., pp. 32, 44. 8 Miidrarakshasa, Act I. O/. Harsha-Charita, Nirnaya Sagara Press Edition, V, p. 153, quoted and discussed by Barua in the Calcutta Beview, June, 1927, pp. 370-371. 8 INTRODUCTION they were of oblong, (square and round shape and the Vishijudharmottara accordingly distinguishes 4 types of pictures : (1) satya (Hcg)-\4rua r -r6alii8tio r a&we.,ir$yjay> in an oblong frame ; (2}' vainika (tf^Rff) which may mean lyrical, in square "frame, and (3) nagara (TRFC), ^ * ' > i ^ - of the citizen, gst^piciures ini round frames, while the fourth type simply is (4) misra (finr), mixed. In connec- tion with wall-paintings the Vishnudharmottara also alludes to floors inlaid with precious jewels. From the Silparatna, on the other hand, we know that Dhulichitra, Powder-painting, familiar to Bengali ladies as Alpona, was applied as temporary coating of powdered colours on a beautiful piece of ground. 1 Painting taking such a wide part in secular and religious life, it was only natural that legends were invented to explain the origin of the art. The Vishnudhar- mottara 2 gives a long account of how the sage Narayana in order to put the apsarasas to shame created the most beautiful nymph Urvast, by drawing her outline with mango- juice. The Chitralakshana 3 again tells us how king Nam-grags a Jigs t' ul, ordered by Brahma, painted the likeness of a deceased son of a Brahmin; where- upon Brahma made it come to life, and having thus defeated Yama, restored the son to his father. In either legend the origin of the art of painting is seen in the outlining of a human figure 4 for the purpose of creating a living human) form. This reconstructed origini is magic and non-aesthetic. A similar notion is to be found in Bhasa's Svapna-Vasavadatta, 5 where king Udayana and 1 Silparatna, Ch. 46, verses 143-145. a Part I, Ch. 129, verses 1-19. 3 Cbitralakshana (German transl., Dauffer, Dokumente der indischen Kunst), pp. 129-136. * C/. A. K. Maitra, Aims and Methods of Painting in Ancient India, llupam, 1928. 8 Transl* S. Subba Bau, Madras, p. 48. INTBQDUCT10N 9 princess YfisavadattS, with whom he had eloped, ate though absent, married ini effigies, by their parents, by drawing the portraits of the two on a board. These instances prove that the artist draws from his memory when visualizing a portrait, .With this tradition another has to be compared .x A Tibetan text of the eighteenth century, the d'pag bsam ijon bzair (ed. by Sarat Chandra Das, Calcutta, 1901) tells us how king Udrayana of Rauraa caused a picture of the Buddha to be made, by taking a reflex of the figure of the Dasabala, as his model. This picture has become known under the mame of 1'u lon^ma (derived from the water). 1 The Silparatnia accordingly defines painting as what bears a resemblance and looks like a reflex in a mirror. 2 The imitative and the imagina- tive origins of pictorial representation, therefore, were felt as equally true. The Vishijudharmottara quotes tb# Urvasl-legend, yet the text never grows tired to point to things seen as ever fresh sources of artistic inspira- tion, when dealing with the drshta '(i.e., with things seen) . But not only the twofold origin) of painting in observation and imagination was theoretically kmown to the authors of the various treatises; the Vishijudharmo- ttara, moreover, introduces its chapters on painiting with a discourse, where Markarujeya instructs king V&jra, that without a knowledge of the science of dancing the rules Of painting can scarcely be understood. In another passage, the observation of nature and of the rules of dancing are indicated as the ultimate resources of the painter. This does not mean that the positions of dancers have to be painted. None of the nine positions 1 Lajiffer, 1. c., p. 186. 8 Silparatna, IV, Ch. 46, verses 145-146. Greek tradition, agreeable to an appreciation of the naturalistic aspect of art only, has it that painting began with the outlining of a man's shadow (The Elder Pliny's chapters on the History of Art, Book XXXV, 15). a 10 INTRODUCTION of the treatise on painting in the Vishnudharmottara coincides with any of the 101 positions explicitly described ini Bharata's Natya-sastra. What is meant by the derivation of painting from dancing is the move- ment in common to both these expressive forms; it asserts itself ini purity through dancing, it guides the hand of the artist, who knows how to paint figures, as if breathing, the wind as blowing, the fire as blazing, and the streamers as fluttering. The moving force, the vital breath, the life-movement (chetania), that is what is expected to be seen in the work of a painter, to make it alive with rhythm and expression. Imagination, observation and the expressive force of rhythm are meant by the legends of the origin of painting, to be its essential features. The yishnudharmottara clearly distinguishes between drshta anid adrshta, the latter comprising things invisible or rarely to be seen. The drshta, things that are seen easily by ordinary mortals, excel in what we call landscape-painting. The hours of day and night, the seasons are described (Ch. 42). There we find a close connection of mood and time, which reached its height in the Eagmala pictures, where season, hour, emotion and music became fused as painting. At the same time details are observed with such sincerity as we find in the pictures of Dutch masters, for instance, in the description of the drinking place. The light effects sought to be produced show a very sensitive reaction to optic effects as the faded light of the candle in the morning dawn. Yet we are told that moonshine should be shown by a Kumuda flower in full bloom, and sunshine by drawing creatures suffering from heat. In one instance, atmospheric effects are observed, while in the other, the behaviour of one object or the other, reacting to the atmospheric change is represented suggestively. INTRODUCTION 11 This interest IB the living individuality of the single forms of nature gives to Indian landscape the charm of story-telling. Side by side with the n&ive joy in the variegated forms of nature we learn that rivers are to be represented in human shape, as was the case with them in Greece, but- they should stand on their vahanas, their knees should be bent and their hands should hold full pitchers. What an amazing association of ideas! The personification of the river put again into action as an ordinary human being, bending down under the load of the full pitcher of water drawn from the river. This versatility in visualizing abstraction and actual action replaces the mere observation of nature. That seas should have water depicted instead of a halo, or that an artist should show a pitcher to suggest a tank, a conch shell in representing a conch shell, and a lotus flower in representing a lotus flower, once more points to a matter of absorbing interest namely, the single form of nature exercised on the mind of the artist. He rendered it faithfully. Yet where large appearances like whole rivers and seas, landscapes with rising suns, etc., had to be painted, he took his refuge and delight in introducing personifications or such actions of some members of the scene appropriate to, and indicative of, their surroundings. The Indian artist never took the world at a sweeping glance. Observing the details of appearance, the author of the Vishnudharmottara describes the different types of men. Country people, the nobility, widows, courtesans, artisans, wrestlers, soldiers, etc., are vividly described in movements, habits and features, peculiar to their class, while, at the same time, most of them belong to one of the five standardised types of men, called (1) Hamsa, (2) Bhadra, (3) Malavya, (4) Euchaka and (5) Sasaka. Their respective measures should be 108, 106, 104, 100 12 INIBODUCWON , 90 angulas in contradistinction to the measurement given m the Brfaat SariihitS, where the relation of &kes is inverse, 96, 99, 102, 105 and 108 angulas respectively* A detailed description of the 5 types i given there.Jr 1 JKAS, Vol. VII, 1875. The Brhat Samhit (it anslated by H. Kern), pp. 98-97 : (2) By Jupiter being in its power will be born (the personage denominated) Hamsa ; by Saturn, the man 9&9a ; by Mars, the Buchaka ; by Mercury, the Bhadra.; and by Venus, the M&lavya. (7) The length and stretch of the Hamsa is of 98 digits. The personages going by the names of 9 aCa > Buchaka, Bhadra and Malavya, are each taller than the preceding one by three digits. (10) The Malavya will be marked by arms resembling an elephant's trunk, and by hands reaching to the knees. His members and joints are fleshy, he has a well-proportioned and neat frame, and a slender waist. His face, of oblong form, measures 13 digits, the transverse measure between the ears being three digits less. He has fiery eyes, comely cheeks, even and white teeth an-d not too thick lips. (11) Having by bis valour obtained wealth, he will, residing in the recesses of Mount PSriyatra, reign as a wise king over Malava, Baroach, Surashtra, Lata, Sifcdh, and s6 forth. (12) This Malavya will at the age of seventy years piously depart from , life at a place of pilgrimage. Having in due form indicated the characteristics of this man, I now proceed to mention those of the others. (13) The man Bhadra is marked by having the arms thick, equal, round and long, his length is equal to the stretch of his arms from one side to the other ; his cheeks are covered with soft, small and dense hairs. In his constitution skin and sperm are predominant ; his breast is bfoad and thick ; his prevailing quality is goodness. He has a tiger- like face, is steadfast, forbearing, virtuous, grateful; he has the pace of an elephant, and knows many, sciences. (15) He is sagacious, handsome, clever in the arts, constant, an adept in ascetic philosophy ; has the forehead and temples well-shaped ; the loins likewise, the hands and feet lined like the lotus calix, the nose fine, the eyebrows even and well-knit. (16) His person smells like earth when moist from fresh rain, or cassia-leaf, saffron, frontal juice of elephants, agallochum. The hair of his head is black, curled, and such that each single hair has its own pore. (18) Should his length come to 84 digits and his weight to one bhara, then he will be lord over the Middle country ; but if he have the full measure implied in the words "taller by three digits " he will be emperor of the whole country. (19) After dutifully ruling the country he acquired by his bravery, the Bhadra^ at eighty years of age, will depart from life at a place of pilgrimage and go to heaven. (20) The has full cheeks, is false, a good general ; fond of love's sport and partial to other men's IN33ZODUOTQN 13 figures may appear in* various positions,, of which nine are the leading attitudes : (I) 1 %^n^?f^yjvagata)----the front view ; (2) *F&$ (anrju) the back view ; (3) qt^dtfffliftk (sSchtkytasartra)^-a benrtr position in profile view ; ' (4) trtf^Wf (ardhavilochama) the face ini profile, the body ini three-quarter profile view ; (5) trrafaw (t)a^vagata) the side view proper ; (6) tftTfrl (parSvrtta) with head and shoulder-belt turned backwards ; (7) WW (pyshthagata) back view with upper part of the body partly visible in forlorni profile ; wives. : restlesa, valorous, obedient to his mother, and attached to woods, hilte, rivers* and wildernesses. (21) Tne Same 9 ac .a is suspicious, and a keen observer of another's weak points. He id 92 digits in length, and, not being very heavy, has a soft step. The chief constituent of his body is marrow. (22) His waist is slender. (28) /This 9 a ? a W *M De a border chieftain or provincial governor Bt6 will/ seventy years old, reach Yama's home. (24) The marks of the Hamsa are : the mouth red, the face gold -coloured, and, showing thick cheeks and an elevated nose ; the head round ; the eyes honey-like, the nails wholly red ; etc. (25) He delights in water His length according to the statement of the Sages will be 96 digits. (26) The Hamsa will possess the country of Khasa, 9^ raaena Gandhara, and the land between the- Ganges and Yamuna); after exercising the royal {>ower for 90 years, he will meet death within a wood. (27) The worthy Buchaka by name will have good eyebrows and hairs ; a red tinged dusky colour, a neck marked with three folds like a shell ; an oblong face. He is brave, cruel, an egregrious counsellor, a chief of robbers, and a practised soldier. (28) The measure of Buchaka's face, in length, being taken four times, gives the measure of hid middle. His skin is thin. (20) His length is a hundred digits. (30) He is an adept in charms and spells, and has thin knees and legs. When this Buchaka has reigned as king over the Vindhya, Sahyagiri and Ujjain, he will on reaching seventy years, find his death by sword or fire. (31) There are five other men , who will be the attendants of the fore-mentioned monarchs. (105) The number of digits which make the measure of men's height is, for the tallest, 108 ; for those of middle height, 96 ; for the shortest, 84. 14 INTRODUCTION (8) yRgTf (pariv^tta) with the body sharpiy turned back from the waist upwards, and lastly (9) 4l4JMd (samaniata) 1 the back view, in squatting position with body bent. In a further passage thirteen positions are enumer- ated which, however, is clearly an interpolation. These positions are obtained in painting with the help of kaya fagr) and vrddhi (f1%), decrease and increase, that is to say, the science of foreshortening. Foreshortening (Ksaya and vriddhi) and proportion (pramana) constitute with regard to single figures the working of observation and tradition. The law of ksaya and vrddhi was as intensely studied by, the ancient Indian painter as was perspective by the early Italian masters. Pramana, on the other hand, was the standardized canon, valid for the upright standing figure and to be modified by every bent and turn. The Hamsa measure is detailed in full ; it is of the uttama navatala type. The annexed plates compare the uttama navatala measure of the Vishnudharmottara with those found in the Brhat Samhita, Sukranltisara, Chitralakshaija, and with the Uttamaniavatala in G. Rao's Talamana. 2 Though not distinctly mentioned, it is evident that the body of a deity should be of the size of a Hamsa. Rdshis, Gandharvas, Vidyadharas, Daityas, Danavas, ministers, Brahmins, Samvatsara Jfim? < 6iaQ^^g^Uj| and the family priest (purohita) should be of the size of a Bhadra. Yakshas, prostitutes and Vaisyas should have the size of a Buchaka. Kinnaras, Rakshasas, Nagas and domestic women should have the size of a Malavya, while the chief amongst men and the Sudras ( !) should be of the size of a Sasaka (Ch. 42) . 1 Cf. Silparatna, Ch. 64, vs. 60-110. * Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, V, 3, pp. 22-25. INTRODUCTION 15 Together with prama^a and Ksaya and vfddhi, the knowledge of modelling or shading (varttana) was fully known to the Indian masters of old. It is stated to be threefold : l (1) patraja (iRWr) cross lines, (2) airika (^ft^t) stumping and (3) vinduja (f^P^r) dots (Ch. 41). How much observation and technical experience is needed to state their results in such clear terms will be under- stood. Yet " whatever the artist represents he should avoid placing one figure in front of another" (Ch. 43). Once more, one notices the same counteraction of abstrac- tion and observation as in the case of landscape painting. A logical employment of hsaya and vrddhi would have implied oversecting. But the Indian artist cherishes every single form as a whole, as containing all he has to express and as containing the whole of nature. So he cannot bring himself to cover and hide one of its parts. As for the employment of colour, we have the following information from the Vishijudharmottara and other sources. Five primary colours consist of white, yellow, black, blue, and colour of the myrobalan according to our text (Ch. 40), or white, red, yellow, black, green, according to our text (Ch. 27) and the Natyasastra ; white, red, yellow, soot and syama (dark, blue or black) according to the Silparatna. The Abhilashitartha Chintamaiji (MS. 12 ct., Mysore library) knows as pure colours, white made of conch-shell, red (prepared from red lead or from alaktaka juice, i.e., lac, or from red chalk g airika) , green-brown (haritala), i.e., sulphuretted arsenic, and black from kajjvala (soot, used as eyeblack). 2 1 A photo taken before restoration of one of the female figures painted on the rock of Sigiriya shows the various manners of shading. * Prof. B. M. Barua draws our attention to an important passage in the Samyutta-Nikaya, Part III, p. 152, where the Buddha has incidentally mentioned the following vegetable substances used by the dyers or painters for preparing dyes or colours ; (1) resin (raj ana), lac (lakha), turmeric (balidda), indigo (nil!), and madder (mafijetthl). 16 INTRODUCTION The miximg of these colours is left to the of the artist. He may coat them with lac and resin. Colouring substances are : gold, silver, copper, mica, deep coloured brass, red lead, vermilion, tin, yellow orpimenit, yellow niyrobalani, lac, indigo and some kind of iron oxide. Prescriptions for the preparation of these vegetable and mineral colours are giveru in the Silparatna. 1 Red chalk for instance ought to be ground on stone and left covered with water for a day, red lead also ought to be ground and covered with water for half a day, red arsenic, however, should be made into powder but it should not be covered with water. Then the colours should be ground once more and agaiiu put into water for five days. Afterwards they should be mixed with the exudation of the Nimba tree, then at last they are ready to be applied on walls and in pictures. Gold-leaf should be divided into finest leaflets, and then ground with a well smoothed stone ; afterwards it has to be mixed with water and with a small amount of sanid. When this paste is well ground it should again be put into water, so that all dirt may rise to the surface. The gold paste should them be pressed, mixed with vajralepa and applied with suitable brushes. There were nine brushes for every colour. 2 When dry, the artist should rub it slowly with a boar-tusk until it becomes bright. Then again he may place over this very fine gold leaves and rub them with hard cotton. The same prescrip- tion is to be found in the Abhilashitartha*ChimtamanL/ / As to the preparation of the ground, buffalo-skin has to be boiled in water until it becomes soft like butter. The water then has to evaporate and sticks have to be made of the paste and dried in the sunshine. This hard plaster is 1 Silparatna, Ch. 46, vs. 119.-130. ' C/, K. P. Jayasw&l, A Hindu Text on Painting, Modern Review, XXXHI, p. 734, INTRODUCTION 17 called vajralepa. 1 If then boiled in a mud vessel with water, it will make any colour fast with which it is mixed. If mixed with white mud, it has to be used as coating for the wall, in three layers, each layer being allowed to dry before the application of the next. On this the painting may be applied. 2 Previous to the process of vajralepa coatings, the wall has to receive a thick coating, consisting of bricks, burnt conches and the like, powdered according to the Silparatna, and mixed with sand, the watery preparation of molasses, and drops of the decoction) of mudga (phaseolus munga, mung pulse) amounting to a fourth part of the mortar powder. Into this, smashed ripe banana fruits have to be put, also a fourth part of the amount of the mortar. After three months, when this mixture has dried up, it shall be ground again. Then it must be mixed once more with molasses-water, until it gets the touch of fresh butter. In this stage it should be applied to the wall with a spoon, the wall having been cleansed with cocoanut fibres and having been sprinkled for some time with molasses- water. This is the twofold process by which the wall is made ready for the drawing and the application of colours. 8 The outlines ought to be drawn in yellow and red colour as a rule. " The painter should think of the proportionate size of the thing to be painted, and think of it as having been put on the wall. Then calculating its size im his mind, he should draw the outline marking all the limbs. It should be bright in prominent places and dark in depressed places. It may be drawn in a single colour, where comparative distinction is required. If depressed places are required to be bright, jet black 1 For the preparation of Vajralepa see Brhat Samhita, Ch. 57, Abhilashitartha Chintamani, verse 86 and following, and Silparatna, vs. 131-133. For the preparation of the wall underneath the Vajralepa cover. Cf. Visb 9 udharmottara, Part IE, Oh. 40, vs. 1 onwards and Silparatna, verses 41-42. 8 Abhilashltftrtha Chintamani, p, 60. 3 \S INTRODUCTION phould be used/' l The modelling capacity of tfre outline is also described in the VrddhasSlabhanjikS. This outline has to be filled with the first colour wash, which, as a rule, is white, but according to the VishflLudharraottara also may be green. The colouring of things seen, says the Vishnudharmottara, is true to nature. Great emphasis is laid on* the thousandfold mixtures of colours left to the imagination of the artist, and on the light and dark shade of every tone. The range of colours must have been wide enough to render with subtlety the local colour of objects. The different tribes and castes of India are thus distinguished as dark, when belonging to the Pulindas and people of the South, to Panchalas, Surasenas and Magadhas, to Angus, Vaftgas and Kalingas, to Sudras, to sick men and to family men engaged in toilsome work. Sakas, Yavanas, Pallavas and the Valhikas should be predominantly white, and so are the twice- born and the Ksatriyas, kings and prosperous people. Those who are oppressed by evil stars are of dark colour. And it is also clear that evil-doers ought to be of a dark complexion. The colour thus has partly descrip- tive and partly suggestive significance. The dfshta and adrshta hold their sway; symbol and illustration are amalgamated inito an expressive language, keenly alive to all those visual impressions that are on a small scale, obtrusively finite, and seem to carry their meaning expanded within their outlines, as local colour. But this ambiguity of the colour in its suggestive and descriptive faculty was clearly kept apart. Taken in a natural- istic and descriptive sense, the sky or the atmosphere has to be painted as almost without any special colour. 2 The sky, on the other hand, is of the colour of the blue 1 Part in, Ch. 27. C/. NatyaSastra. 2 Part III, Ch. 42, INTRODUCTION 19 lotus and wears a garment of that colour, if represented as a statue, whem it should carry the sun and the moon* in its hands. 1 Colour symbolism underlies not only the paint- ing of statues which, according to their Sdttuika, rajasika and tdmasika aspects, had to be painted white, red or dark, but was respectively selected for rasa-chitras , the pictures of emotions, which, according to the Silparatna, formed a group by themselves, distinct from the realistic paintings that were resembling what is actually seen in nature and looked like a reflex in a mirror. 2 Each rasa (emotion) had to be painted in its expressive colour, the Srngara (erotic) was of syama hue, the laugh-exciting (h&sa) of white colour, the pathetic (karuna) of grey colour, the furious (rudra) of red colour, the heroic (vira) of yellowish white colour, tho fearful (bhayanaka) of black colour, the supernatural and amazing of yellow colour and the repulsive (loathsome, vlbhatsa) of blue colour. 3 The expressionism of colours visualizes a tempera- mental attitude and is concerned with the wide range of emotions. Yet side by side with it, colour in its descriptive quality was made use of to a large extent. It was not only known as local colour, distinctive of, and unchanging with, the various objects, but also its modifications due to light and surroundings were considered. .. " Vajra said : iny curiosity (runs) high, and I wish to hear (more) about the true and untrue colours of water, mentioned by you. Markandeya replied : The untrue colour of water resembles that of lapis lazuli. It is the effect of the reflexion of the sky in water. But the natural colour of water is seen in the falling down of water-falls; it resembles moonlight/' 4 * Part III, Ch. 62, verses 1-2. 2 Silparatna, verses 145-147. * Natyasastra, Ch. VI, verses 42-43. * Vishnudharmottara, Ch. 52, verses 10-12, 20 INTRODUCTION The abstract and the realistic vision, which, as a rule, we hold apart as poles in the evolution of art, isolated from one another by gradual steps of development or by the sudden gap of reaction, are but the two sides of Indian art, contemporary and organic, for the obverse is turned towards that which lies outside, changeable , alluring in its variety and provoking observation, whilst the reverse faces the withini, essentially unchangeable, because continually stirred up by emotions, of which chetana, the life-movement, is the common source. To do justice to them a language of symbols comprises colours and measurements in solemn hierarchy. la ' b>c After having dealt with the theory of painting, the Vishnudharmottara, Chs. 44-85, proceeds giving directions how to make images of various deities, more than eighty in ruumber. The purpose of these images is to have the 18 The Vishnudharmottara declares the rules for painting as valid also for sculpture, which either may be hollow or massive (Ch. 43) ; worth noticing as an example of hollow sculpture is the use of skin, coated with clay and painted over. Hollow figures must have stood amongst other places also on the stage, where images of gods, demons, yakshas, elephants, horses, doer and birds were to be made of clay, wood, cloth, leather or iron (Ch. '27, v. 3). 16 The commentary to the Kamasutra by Yasodhara when speaking about the Sadangti, the six limbs of painting, i.e., rupa-bheda, prarnanam, bhftva, lavanya- yojanam, sadreya and varnika-bhanga refers to the categories of type, proportion, rendering, of mood (rasa) embodiment of grace, point of view (with reference to sthSnam and to the preparation of colours (cf. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indones. Art, German edition, p. 99) ; all these categories are dealt with by the Vishnudharmottara. l * Since the publication of the first edition a number of passsages referring to painting have been added to our notice. The following deserves special mention ; Qam- yuttanikaya, P. Ill, p. 152, v. 11, where paintings of male and female figures on wooden boards, walls and on cloth are discussed. This is the earliest known reference to wall-painting, *ad painting on wooden boards and on cloth. Another interesting quo- * lioa from Buddhaghosha's commentary to Vinaya Bikkhu Pachittya XXVI throws light on the reason why Buddha objected to the representation of figures : " The objection was raised because the Mera Laludayi, after having dyed a yellow garment, made various objectionable representations in it of male and female figures in the act of dalliance "(references made by Prof. Dr. B. M. Barua). This text also shows that not only were paintings made on cloth, but cloth itself was dyed so as to be decorated with figures, a technique for which much later Masulipatam in S. India became famous. INTEODUCTION 20a deity near by (cf. p. 31 and p. 65) to be in actual contact with it; the images thus actually have become " mingled with men," as it had been declared by the Bupnath and other rock inscriptions of Asoka, about a millennium before our text was compiled. 1 Out of the pantheon, leaving aside the avatars of Vishnu and his aspects as Brahma and Siva in their respective varieties including the corresponding goddesses, prescriptions for the making of images of deities scarcely known at present as actual sculptures demand atten- tion. The Nasatyas, for instance (p. 72), physicians of the gods, the Manus (p. 92), the Maruts (p. 95), the images of Artha (p. 96), of the Samaveda, and of the Rgveda (p. 98), are personifications of a most variegated nature. Beside these, however another group of "visualisations" is of no small importance. Directions are given with regard to the making of Lingam, Vyoman and Aiduka. Whereas the first symbol is widely used, the more complex forms of Vyoman and Aiduka (pp. 100, 108) are unknown hitherto as actual objects of worship. Both of them seem to be the remnants of an aniconic cult, the plastic equivalent to some degree, of the graphic yantras. Their geometry strongly contrasts with the florid features of the anthro- pomorphic forms. Yet a connection is established, between them, the yantra and the anthropomorphic image, by the minute description of the lotus (p. 66), on which the worship of the gods should be performed. This lotus should be of metal or some other material. Metal is mentioned in the first place on account of the possibility of minute execution allowing for a precise description with regard to the number of petals, the distance between pericarp and petals and so forth. It is said that by worshipping Aiduka, the worship of this world should be regarded as accomplished. The 1 " Tho*e gods who during that time had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have now been made (by me) mingled with them.'* C/. B. P, Chanda : The Beginnings of Art in Eastern India, Memoir, A.S,Q.T.M., 3d, p..21. 206 INTBODUCTION form of Aiduka consists of a combination of various stereometrical figures, the Liiigam and the figures of the four lokapalas. It is a complex rendering of the Lingam "by worshipping which" the adoration of the world should be (regarded as) accomplished and of the Vyoman ' ' by the worship of which the worship of the world should be (regarded as) accomplished 55 too (pp. 99, 100). Vyoman (the upper regions) consists of cubical and spheroid parts on which is established aiu eight-petalled lotus with the Sun god in the centre, and the Dikpalas in their proper places. The yamtra-like nature of the lotus pedestal is suggested by the lotus shape which yantra and mandala as linear representations take. Its yantric character moreover, is pronounced by the Vish^udharmottara (p. 67) stating that "that god only and no other should be worshipped om the lotus, by contemplating whom in mind, it was set up." The lotus therefore is no mere pedestal. It is magically linked up with the image it carries. A similar magic can be assumed as connecting the various stereometric parts of Vyoman and Ai(Juka not only, but of all the bhadrapithas that serve as pedestals to the images along with the lotus, and serve as plinths with or without lotus profiles to mediaeval Indian temples. The temple builder and the image maker were working on the same foundation of a magical suggestiveness of form- connections. But the rules valid for both, apply to painting too, as far as they can be applied there. The prescriptions translated in the following pages are valid for images as well as for book illustrations. This common basis of architecture, sculpture and painting it was shown that it primarily underlies dancing at times is responsible for a fusion) of the various disciplines of sculpture arud painting, for a desperate attempt of visualizing what perhaps is beyond visualisation, INTRODUCTION 20c Says the Vishnudharmottara with regard to the image of Hari-visvarupa (p. 107), according to the capacity of the artist that god should be made.... By the way of painting one should show according to the rules of the Sastras the whole aggregate of the three worlds attached to his body. This prescription! in its endeavour to render abstractions in a concrete, tangible and visible form stands in glaring contrast to a prescription like the one about the making of the image of Vyoman. Two utterly different trends of mind, two utterly different tradi- tions, are placed side by side and intermingle in this treatise on image-making. It stores up old heritage and the practice of the day and at times proves that both are older than its words, that cannot avoid at times interpreting scholasti- cally what imagination and representation had achieved spontaneously. It speaks for instance about the mottled skin of the black antelope, explaining its contrasting colours because all sacrifice is propagated by work white and not white (pious and impious). Nevertheless such doctrinary scholasticism does not detract much from the value of this treatise. It is common to all ecclesiastic literature on art. For most of the images definite colours are prescribed (c/. also p. 33). Nevertheless no trace of colour is to be found on stone images after the Gupta period. Probably the colouring referred to representations of gods as book illustrations and in pictures onLj^. j About the form of worship once only an allusion is made (p. 102) with regard to the image of Dharma. " Only if anyone is accompanied by his wife and then is initiated (into the mysteries of Dharma) then Dharma should be (regarded as) established." This reference to the Dharma cult, exclusively made, corroborates the dating of the trea- tise as belonging to the seventh century approximately, when the cult of dharma, being new, deserved special mention. No allusion is made to any form of the other well-established cults. CANON OF PKOPOBTIONS OANON OF PEOPORTIOlilS c* c8 ed ia c8 1 a CQ H CO O 43 s H tuo a cd 3 a s 14 CANON OF PBOPOETIONS H O pS 02 B P 03 i d t H 1 s t a : : co : : ci : : : : : cfl 2* c6 ; j CO co H 1* 4 O P U> a c 5 ! co ^ \ i C8 ^<* ; : : : : cfl S P 1 : | .2 g 1 3 1 ** | * * 5 >> 3 > X-N 4 2" *~* S * 1 9 1 If IJllll Is Mrrtnas^v^g' fe fe * oo _a > 2 >-S -j r-i C fi ^'S'Sg'g 4 ^ Distance between e 'rom the end of tb to tbe auditory pa lackTorb of the neter) apil (diameter) ar (widtb) ^^|i-Bfr i S * 13 too - CO 2 +3 ja a CO 1O CO a CO "B Cf A eB -a .S D 2<4-4 1 oo I I S S 2 i s a -si* M tj "f ,S ^ CO 1> i > ' T? Q< fl ^-< S"^ J t| 3 PZJ fq w CQ S p CANON OP PROPOKTIONS 3 * < JH C0 a efl 1 to t- : CM i> : ws : rH rH rH eQ J4- , / ..... 1 I CO OO d t iO WS ^ J_^ ^ r ^ a fl 2 y : : : oo CM : j : : . : rH r- tee on 'Jo tH a cS c9 IS 53 o <> o : t- o o co a eQ !$ > C8 : ::::::: 3 | -M f CD ca eO 3 cQ Cfr f3 CO 00 5 rH rH rH rH O ^-N rrt ^w. -*s a 3 _ g> *So 3" S M ^ -s ^ "-3 g Og^ : g3fe', s s ~ S 1 f 3 ? J ^4^5 Sg a^^ ^ < * a ^ > ^3'S 53 l^ 1 ^ a d^S S t-^ a, a J J S ; S tD*c2u ce ^' c3 TRANSLATION BULBS OF PAINTING TRANSLATION 1. Part III, Ch. 2, Verses 1-9. Vajra said : (Oh) sinless (one), speak to me about the making of images of deities, so that (the Deity) may remain always close by and may have an appearance in accordance with the Sastras. Marka4eya said : (Oh) Lord of mem, he who does not know properly the rules of chitra l can, by no means, be able to discern the characteristics of images. Vajra said : (Oh) propagator of the race of Bhrgu, be pleased to narrate the rules of painting, as he who knows the rules of painting, alone knows its characteristics in words. Markancjeya said : Without a knowledge of the art of dancing, the rules of painting are very difficult to be understood. Hence no work of (this) earth, (oh) king, should be done even with the help of these two, (for something more has to be known). Vajra said : Please speak to me about the art of dancing and the rules of painting you will tell me (after- wards) for, (oh) twice-born one, the rules of the art of dancing imply (those of) the art of painting. Markandeya said : The practice of (dancing) is difficult to be understood by one who is not acquainted with music. Without music dancing cannot exist at all. Vajra said : You are conversant with dharma, tell me (first) about music and (then) you will speak about the art of dancing (because) when (the former) is well 1 Chitra, i.e., sculpture in the round, relief and painting. Cf. Ch. 46, Silparatna apd K r P r Jayaswal, a Hindu Text on Painting, Mod. Review, VgU XJCXJU, 32 TRANSLATION known, (oh) best of the Bhrgus, (a man) knows dancing too. Markancjeya said : Without singing music cannot be understood. He who knows the rules of singing knows everything properly. Vajra said : (Oh) best of those who support dharma, please speak to me about the art of singing, as he who knows the art of singing is the best of men and knows everything* 1 2. Part III, Ch. 27, Verses 7-26. (Oh) king, I shall now speak to you about the prepa- ration of the principal colours. (Oh) best of kings, there are five principal colours, viz., white (sveta), red (rakta), yellow (pita), black (krshna) and green (harit). It would be impossible to enumerate the mixed colours in this world (which are produced by) the mixture of two or three (primary colours) and through invention of vari- ous states or conditions (i.e., shades or tones). (Oh) best of kings, now I shall speak to you about the divieion of dark (sySma) and white (gaura), which is due to the great suitability for getting mixed, of different colours of this world, from which the twofold colour of all is explained (i.e., the light and dark shade of every colour). Among these (colours), the white (i.e., the light shade) should be of five kinds and the dark of twelve kinds. Bright (gold), light (white), tooth- white, pure-sandal- white, autumn-cloud-white and autumn-moon-white these five traditionally are called the fivefold white (light shade). (The varieties of syftma) should be : reddish-dark, mudga (brownish) dark, dttrvft sprout (greenish) dark and > Here follows a lengthy account of the art of singing, its history and origin . III. Ch. SJ7, TRANSLATION 33 grayish dark too, (oh) king, tawny dark and topaz dark, Priyawgw-creeper dark and monkey dark. Then come blue-lotus (nll6tpala) dark and blue as the nllakantha bird and purple-lotus (rakt6tpala) dark and cloud-dark. Their application is said to be in accordance with the colours of (the respective) objects and they gaio in beauty by intermixture of colours. Having ascertained with precision the colours of deities, I shall speak now about them. Among them, all those of whom I shall not say anything, should be painted white. Vasuki l should be of syama (colour), the nag as should be white in the dvapara (age), and the daityas, dinavas, rdkshasas, gnhyakas, pisachas are of the colour of water, without any glow (lit. unglow- ing by colour). People in the six islands should be of golden colour in the continent of JambudvTpa, excepting one only, (namely), Bharata, (oh) king. In Bharata, (people) born in many countries should be painted. Pulindas and the people of the Deccan are mostly dark by colour, (while) the Sakas, Yavanas, Pallavas and those who are the Valkikas born in Uttarapatka should be predominantly white ; Panchalas, Surasenas and those who are of Magadha, Anga, Variga and Kalinga are mostly dark. Twice-born (ones) should be painted of the colour of the mooni and the Kshatriyas of the colour of the padma (white lotus). Vaisyas again should be (only) slightly light in colour, and Sudras dark. Gandkarvas and Apsaras are traditionally said to be and were (actually painted) in many colours. Kings and prosperous people are of the colour of the padma. The sick, the evil-doers, those who are oppressed by evil stars, or have taken shelter in penance, and all family men engaged in toilsome work should also be dark. 1 Naga king. 34 TRANSLATION The colour of things seen, should be painted resembling (their natural colouring). 3. Part III, Ch. 35, Verses 1-18. Markaiideya said : Henceforth I shall speak to you, (oh) sinless (one), about the rules of chitra. While creating Urvasi in days of yore, the rules of chitra (were evolved) by the sage Narayana, (oh) son of the king, for the good of the world. The great sage for deceiving the divine damsels (already) mentioned, 1 created the 1 Part I, Ch. 12 ( J, verses 1-19 : Va>ra said : Tel] me how Urvasi -was bom and chose as husband a human King of the lunar race. Maikandeya sajd The two sages Nara and Narftyana (of whom I had) spoken before, were Sadhyas, sons of Dliarma, and these two, who were formerly kings, oh descendant of Yadu, were very powerful, being partial incarnations of Vishnu and were always engaged in penance. Their hermitage, charming, full of fragrant tiees, auspicious with mild coolness of the winter, was called " the hermitage of Vadan." There flowed the Ganges carrying its warm waters cooled and looking charming with gold and garlands of pebbles and witb gold-sand. There was the Yadari, enchanting and always full of flowers and fruits. For the good of all mankind, they two, the lords of all people were engaged in severe penances there, they (-who were) like tigers among sages. While they were thus engaged in piactising penance?, apsarasas born of Manu, determined to cause hit drance to their penance, arrived there, wearing various ornaments Koaming amorously and at pleasure and culling flowers they all with eyes like those of the young deer, were seen by Nara} ana, who, the best as he was of those versed in the Veda, could easily discern their purpose. He who had conquered anger and the god of love, possessed of great lustre, and versed in religion and (in the proper employment of) wealth, taking the juice of a mango tree, which excites amour, created the auspicious nymph with charming limbs by painting her on his thigh. The damsel, beautifully drawn, created out of the thigh through painting, was in that very moment endowed with large eyes. No goddess, no gandharvi, no wife of an atura and no r/agfa-damsel, no woman like her was (to be found) in the three worlds, like that beautiful maiden. Having seen her, all the ten apsarasas born of Manu, went away in shame. King JL'urandara heard all this in detail and driven by curiosity he came to see that Vadan hermitage. The thunder-bearing god bowed at the feet of those two Sadhyas who were always (devoted to) religion and saw that (damsel) with auspicious limbs like another goddess Sri. Then the lord Sadhya smilingly said to Narayana : "Oh one knowing religion, this (damsel) born of thigh (uru) should be Urvasi. Take her to heaven, she will be the most auspicious of the apsarasas. Being thus addressed, he was delighted and then, duly saluting the two sages, took to heaven that goddess with eyes like those of the young deer. TRANSLATION 35 most beautiful woman, taking the juice of the mango tree. By means of (the art of cMtra) she was endowed with a beautiful form and became the best apsard. Seeing her all the celestial nymphs went away struck with shame. The great sage having thus created (the art of) chitra, with its rules, made the immovable Visvakarma apprehend it. In dancing as well as in chitra the imitation of the three worlds is enjoined by tradition. The eyes and their expressions, the limbs and their parts all over and the hands have to be treated, (oh) best of kings, as aforesaid in dance. They should be the same in chitra. Dancing and chitra are considered as (equally) excellent. Hence I am going to speak about that by which measurement in danc- ing was said (to be regulated). (But now please) listen : Five types of men should be known, viz., Hamsa, Bhadra, Malavya, Euchaka and Sasaka. I shall speak about their characteristics now. Equal in height and breadth, 1 they are all to be known from (their respective) measurements. (Oh) king, the measurement of a Hamsa is 100 angulas, increased by 8, according to the measure of his own angula ; a Bhadra has only six angulas more (than a hundred). Then (oh) king, a Malavya is 4 angulas more (than a hundred). A hundred is said to be the (measure- ment) of a Kuchaka, and 10 angulas less of a Sasaka. The space covered by 12 angulas is called a tdla. The height of the feet up to the ankles is said to be three angulas and the legs are two tolas (in measure- ment). The knees (in length) are equal to the feet, the thighs as long as the legs. From the navel to the penis the measure is one tola. The same measurement (holds good) from the navel to the heart and from the heart 1 i.e., the length of the body is equal to the length across the chest along the outstretched arms from the tip of the right middle finger to that of the left ; th< proportion remains the same in every case. 36 TRANSLATION to the throat. The throat should be one-third of a and the face, one tola. The distance from the crown to the root of the hair (lit. between head and forehead) is said to be one-sixth of a tala. In the middle (of the entire length of the figure) is the penis. Thus is explained the length. The hand, (oh) king, (is) said to be a tola (long), the arms (above the elbow) seventeen angulas and the fore- arms (just) as much. Half of the chest is 8 angulas broad. (Oh) king, thus has been described to you the measurement of a Hamsa according to breadth. (An artist) should infer (the measurements) of others in accordance with this. In all cases the proportion between breadth and circumference is constant, oh lord of men (lit. as regards breadth and circumference they are all equal) . The measurement of a Hamsa king has been told by me in outline, (oh) best of kings. (Oh) lion among kings, listen to the measurements in detail of each part of the limb to be told by me. 4. Part III, Ch. 36. Markandeya said : The head measures 12 angulas in width. The forehead measures 8 angulas and has an eleva- tion of 4 angulas. The temples measure 4 angtilas, their elevation being 2 angulas. The cheeks measure 5 angulas (in length), and the chin 4 angulas. The ears (measure) 2 angulas, their height being 4 angulas. The middle of the ear measures 1 angula. The nose measures 4 angulas, the elevation of its top being 2 angulas, the breadth 3 angulas. The nose wings are one angula long and twice as high. The middle part between the nose and the (upper) lip, measures half an angula, the (upper) lip one angula and the mouth 4 angulas (in breadth). The lower lip is one angula and (the TBANSLATION 3t lower half of) the chin two angulas. (There should be) 40 teeth, half of an angula long, of which eight should be large teeth, ^th of an angula in elevation ; a large tooth is one angula broad. The eyes are three angulas Jong. The black orb is %rd of the eye and the (width of) the pupils -fth. The eye-brows are three angulas long and ^ an angula wide and the distance between the two is two angulas. From the end^of the eyes to the ear- holes (the distance amounts to) 4 angulas. The neck is 10 angulas wide and 21 angulas in circumference. The distance between the nipples is 16 angulas and that between the clavicles 6 angulas. The circumference of the arm round the shoulder joint is 16 angulas ; the palm of the hand is 7 angulas long, and 5 angulas broad, the whole length of the hand being 12 angulas. The middle finger measures 5 angulas in length. The forefinger is shorter by the frontmost part than that of the middle finger and the ring finger is similar. The little finger (again is) shorter by the Trout- most part than the ring finger. All have three knots at the same distance from one another. The nails are half the length of (the distance between) the knots. The thumb has only 2 knots and measures 3 angulas. The circumference of the abdomen is 42 angulas. The navel is one angula according to the information to be gathered from (all) known sources. The breadth of the hip is 18 angulas and its circumference 44 angulas. The scrotums are 4 angulas wide. As much in circum- ference the penis is 6 angulas long from the middle of that the thighs are four angulas. The breadth of the knees is twice as many angulas in expanse. The breadth of the fore-part of the leg beneath the knee is thrice of that ; (the length being) 5 angulas and the circumference 14 angulas. The (soles of the) feet are 12 angulas long and 6 angulas broad ; the large 38 TRANSLATION toes is 3 angulas long. The toe next (to the large one) is similar to the large toe (in length) and the rest are less (in length) by an eighth part. The nail of the large toe is by a fourth part narrower than the breadth of the toe. The nail of the next toe is half of that, (the measure) of all other nails is an eighth part (less?) of that ; (the sum total of ?) all the toes of the feet is 8a%wZasinheight. The heel should be three aiigulas, its height being four. This is the measurement of a Hamsa. The measure- ments of the remaining best inhabitants of the earth are to be inferred ini accordance with reason, by following this direction, and consistent with their own (respective) mea- surements. A Hamsa should be strong, with arms like the king of serpents, with a nioont- white complexion, with sweet eyes, with a beautiful face and nice waist and with swan-like movements. A Bhadra should be high- souled, of the colour of the lotus, with elephant- like step, with a hairy forehead, with full-grown and tapcringly round arms. A Malavya is dark like the kidney-bean, 1 with a body very beautiful on account of the slender waist, with arms reaching up to the knees, with broad shoulders, broad jaws and nose like that of an elephant (i.e., very prominent). A Ruchaka is said to be a truthful, high-sou led, strong, and clever figure with a conch-hike neck and autumn-white complexion.'' A Sasaka is said to be a clever ( figure), reddish-dark and of a slightly variegated colour with full cheeks and sweet eyes. 5. Part III, Ch. 37, Verses 1-17. Markandeya said : As there are five types of men, according to the measurement of the various limbs and their 1 Or, Muclga pulse. 4 Because the moon is whitish io autumn, nights. TEANSLATION 39 parts, so, (oh), best of men, it must be noted that there are five types of women. (Oh) lord of men, (each) woman should be placed near her man, Every one (of them should be made to reach the shoulders of the man (on her side) in proportion. The waist of a woman should be made 2 angulas thinner than that of a man. The hip (on the other hand) should be made wider, (by adding) 4 angulas. The breasts should be made, (oh) king, charming and proportionate to the measurement of the chest. All kings should be (made) endowed with the marks of mahapurushas and all sovereign rulers should be (made) with webbed hands and feet. And a circle of hair should be drawn auspiciously between their eyebrows. On the hands of kings should certainly be drawn three beautiful auspicious lines slenderly curving and resembling the scratches (made) by a hare. The hair should be represented auspicious, Jine, resembling the deep blue sapphire, adorned by its own greasiness and with the undulation of that essential requisite. 1 (The different) classes of hair are the follow- ing : (1) Kuntala, (loose) hair, (2) Daksinftvarta, curled towards the right, (3) Taranga (wavy), (4) Simhakesara (mane-like), (5) Vardhara (parted), and (0) Jatatasara (matted). An eye should be of the form of a bow or (like) the abdomen of a fish, or like a petal of the blue lotus (utpala), or of the white lotus (padma), a fifth, (oh) great king, is said to be of the form of a grindstone. 2 An eye of the form of a bow should belong to womem 1 For anga m the sense of essential requisite, cf. Raghuvamsa 4.59 and 3.46. 2 Three words are used in three places (1) Pan a, (2) sasa, (3) Rra, i.e., grind- stone, hare, deer. Sasa and Sara do not yield any sense ; Sana may be read in all three cases. 40 TKANSLATION (in general) . An eye of 4 yavas (in width) is called by the name of fish-abdomen. A blue-lotus-petal-eye is traditionally said to be 6 yavas and a red- or white-lotus- petal eye is 9 yavas in measurement. So an eye of the shape of a grindstone should be 10 yavas. The measure of a yava should be calculated proportionate to the measurement of an angula, which has its owni standard. The eye assumes the shape of a bow when looking at the ground in meditation. (An eye) of the form of a fish-abdomen should be painted (in the case) of women and lovers. An eye of the shape of the blue-lotus-petal is said to be of the ever-calm. An eye of the lotus-petal shape befits the frightened and crying. An eye of grind- stone shape is in its place with the angry and woe-stricken. Sages, ancestors (i.e., manes) and gods, (oh) lord of men, should be made glowing and with ornaments consistent with their own colour and outshining (lit. robbing the splendour of others who are lustrous). (Oh) best of kings, that is verily beautiful and devoid of crooked lines (which is) done as aforesaid with these measurements, suitable, unreproachable, in positions with various rays of light (OT^T^f^FTOO on them, within (appropriate) surroundings (lit. fixed grounds, ferogffTCPVn) by the exertion, of (the artist's) owm intellect, alter he has carefully considered (every- thing). 6. Part III, Ch. 38, Verses 1-28. MS.rka33.deya said : The eye (becomes) charming (when it is) like the blue-lotus-petal (utpalapatrabha), red at the corners and with black pupils, smiling, gentle anid ending in long eye-lashes, (oh) best of men. The hands of gods, (oh) king, should be conducive to the welfare of the people (i.e., represented im a benevolent TRANSLATION 41- attitude). The eyes (should be) wide, with black pupils, adding beauty to the divine face, beautiful to look at, charming to the mind, smiling and with ends like those of blue-lotus petals, with eye-lashes bent at the ends, of equal size, gentle and (with the white) of the colour of cow's milk. The face beautiful all over should be fully developed : (it should be) well finished, benignant, marked with all the auspicious marks, not triangular and not crooked. One who wishes good to the people should discard (a too profuse employment of) large circles, triangles and other (geometrical shapes) when representing gods. (Oh) perpe- tuator of the Yadu race, the gods should be represented according to the Hamsa-ineasure. They should have hairs on their eye-lashes and eye-brows only ; their body (however) should be entirely devoid of hairs. Those who live in heaven have always smiling faces and eyes, and look like (youths) of the age of sixteen. They should be drawn wearing auspicious strings of garlands and ornamented by crownB, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, ornaments of the upper arm, long girdles reaching up to the ornaments on the feet, and sacred threads with ornaments for the head. Their shoulders should be broad. (Oh) tiger among men, they should be represented with beautiful loin-cloth on the left, reaching below the knee; the right knee (however) should be shown. The linen scarf which the gods wear round the upper part of their body should (also) be executed beautifully. The halo should be drawn round their heads, proportionate to the measurement of the head and the colour of the halo-circle, (oh) great king, should resemble the colour of the deity. In their case, an upward look, a downward look and also a sideward look should be discarded. The same applies to a too small, to a too big, to a depressed (looking), to an angry and to a harsh 6 42 TRANSLATION eye. It is said that upward look causes death, downi- ward look causes sorrow, sideward look causes loss of wealth, too small eyes cause death, too large eyes cause sorrow and so do the depressed (looking) eyes, (oh) best of kings. A harsh look causes loss of wealth and an angry look causes tear. (The image of a deity) should not be dome with either shrunk or inflated abdomen or with wounids (on the body, oh) perpetuator of the Yadu race. (It should not be) bent, of a rough colour, with an open mouth, or with limbs short of or exceeding (appropriate) measurement, (oh) descendant of the Yadus. (It should not fall) short of or exceed (the prescribed) measurement, (oh) ruler of the earth. A shrunk abdomen is conducive only to starvation and fear, and inflated abdo- men causes death. A body with wounds causes death, one that is too short brings about loss of wealth, one too long creates sorrow, and one with rough colour induces fear. A halo in the east causes loss of wealth, in the south death, im the west destruction of sons, and in the north fear (i.e., it ought to be behind and round the head). A nimbus short of measurement leads to destruction and one exceeding the appropriate measure- ment bespeaks ruin to the country. A rough (image) is said to cause death and an angry (one) destroys beauty. Even when (duly) invoked by the best of Brahmins, the gods never enter images short of (Gastric) measurements and devoid of the marks (lakshanas of divine form) ; (but) demons, ghosts and hobgoblins always emter into them, and so a great care should be taken to avoid shortness of measurements. (An image) possessed of all the beautiful marks is said to be excellent from every point of view. It adds to wealth, crops, fame and the length of life, yet when, devoid of (those) marks, it destroys wealth and crops, (oh) best of kings ; the gods always should be made beautiful, having gaits (like one of the TBANSLATION 43 following) animals, (viz.,) the lion, the bull, the elephant and the swan. Blessed is a work of art (endowed) with all (the Sastric) marks, (as it brings luck) to the country, to the king and the maker, (and is as the gods) long for it. Am image, therefore, should be properly made by all men with great care, (endowed) with all (the Sa'stric) marks. 7. Fart III, Ch. 39, Verses 1-32. There are nine positions of variegated colours, with auspicious forms and gestures. Please listen to (all of) them in due order. The first should be the straight posi- tion (lit. derived from the straight, rjvagata, 5R*Rnwr); the second is the non-straight (anrju, *sn2;3J); then with a bent body (sachlkrtasarira, ^if^SRfr). Then comes (the position) with one eye (lit. with half eyes, ardhavilochana, ^nlf^rafcR); after that comes the, side- view (lit. derived from the side, parsvagata, Then comes the "cheek-turned" position (paravrtta, trcrerr), 1 then the back view, (lit. derived from the back, prsthagata, 3VTTO) ; and (finally) the "turned round" position (parivrtta, 2 trfTem) ; and then (the one which is) thoroughly bending (samanata, ^EWTIfl). In; painting (bhushite) these positions with many transitions (lit. distinctions) (from one to the other) are nine (altogether) ; now, (oh) king, hear from me, one by one, (what is) the nature of each of them (and how) it comes into existence. (1) The pre-eminent position amongst those (mentioned) in the beginning (of our enumeration) has a beautiful 1 The text has Purftvrtta, a copyist's slip for Parflvrtta. Cf, verses 20-24. 8 The text has Purvrtta which must be changed to Parivrtta. Of. VB, 44 TEANSLATION appearance 1 which is due to a (static) posture called rju. In this way it is accompanied by the various organs of sense 2 A very pleasing body, well finished and accompanied by distinct qualities of measurement (i.e., well proportioned), very fine (in execution) and shaded with ornamental display of light and shade, faces the spectator ; very pure, charming and adorned by manifold lines and embellishments, the portions on the back should be without foreshortening (lit. diminished limbs). 8 The front view, face, chest and abdomen should also remain unforeshortened (undiminished). (The figures), (oh) intelligent one, grow narrower (lit. have attained thinness) , towards the waist from the thighs (as well) as from the shoulders. Their nose- wings and lips appear foreshortened by a fourth part of their width (lit. a fourth part of nosewings and lips has beem reduced to decay) and their limbs are foreshortened by a third part (of their breadth). 4 (3) What (looks) charming, due to the attainment of a curved posture (tiryak), well rounded, tender, all over (lit. all the four parts being) slender and conducive to (the beauty of all the limbs) is called, oh king, bent, on account of imitating the sky. (Its characteristics are :) Half of the eyes and of the forehead and also of the nose are shown. The eye that represents the half that remains after division (i.e., the one eye that is to be seen in profile) is foreshortened (lit. suppressed) by artistic means and the eyebrow is also artistically suppressed (i.e., foreshortened) and is painted with gentle lines. The face is neither straight nor irritating, neither black nor shady. 1 Read instead of kantft rupatp, kuta rupaip. ft i.e., in this way all the organs of sense (the 2 eyes, mouth, nose, ears) are visible. 8 i.e., tfee back should be quite straight. *' The second positicn ' aurju ' is not- described; it is the reverse of the first one. TRANSLATION 45 (4) The next position is called " adhyardhaksha " i.e., ' ardhavilochana ' (with one eye). The signs are as follows and have a specific character : One eye in the face of the figure is shown (in full), half of the eyebrows is suppressed (i.e., one eyebrow is not to be seen). The forehead and one eyebrow are visible (lit. the only essential part of the rest of the face [that is] to be seen is the curve of the forehead in half its usual size and the curve of the eyebrow) The next visible part is half of the cheek from one side only, while the other half is invisible (lit. suppressed). Half of the usual length (lit. measure) of the lines on the throat and a yava only of the chin are showni. The navel, one angula less than the opening of the mouth, and three quarters (lit. half and half of that half) of the waist and other (parts) should be shown. (5) That position occasionally is called ' chhayagata ' OSWTTri), i.e., coming out of the shade, whose side is seen, either the right or the left, whose limbs and movements enter into quite a new (lit. different) constellation, of whom one eye only, one eyebrow, one temple, one ear and half of the chin and the hair should be (shown) and which is possessed of qualities like sweetness, grace, and proper proportion. It is (also) called " derived from the side" (parsvagata, iflrafrnT). It should also be called : " on the wall" (bhittika, ftfaw). (6) This position 1 is said to be " turned back by the cheek" (gaijdaparavrtta, tretncnCT) whose limbs are not very sharply (delineated); it has appropriate measurement in (proper) place and has attained k^aya (diminution) called " dark " in forehead, cheek and arm and also iji the throat, (i.e., these parts are vaguely discernible, as they are lying in the shade) (which is) artistically foreshortened (lit. made slender) 1 and looks tender. 1 Bead instead of Kalakshtne, Kalakshtye (artistically slender). 46 TRANSLATION (7) In pictures and wall paintings, (that) is tradition-ally called " derived from the back " (prsthagata) which reveals a bodily frame attractive towards the back, with muscles and joints like those of Siva (Sarvajna) with a tortuous frown, very calm and pleasing to the eye. One side only is seen; the chest, (one) cheek and the outer corner of the eye are only faintly shown. It is possessed of qualities like sweetness (madhurya) and grace (lavanya) and has (its appropriate) measurement. (8) (A figure) whose upper part of the body should be turning back and only half to be seen on account of its reversed position with a face tainted by envy, whose upper and lower portions of the body should be somewhat lost in shade towards the front, (while) the (lower) half (of the body) should be like that of a rustic, whose middle (is drawn) properly foreshortened and agreeable to the eye, should be known as " turned round " (parivrtta) and should be represented for (the purpose of) upholding (?), (oh) lord of men. (9) But what is drawn with the buttocks in full view, with the soles of the feet joined, with half of the body faintly seen from above, with the part about the entire waist shown, with the two entire soles shown, with fore- shortened lower part of the toes, beautiful all round, well finished, not terrible-looking, with arms visible and head and trunk well joined, and bent down towards the legs (lit. suppressed knvards a part of the legs) (is known) by the name of Samaiiata (thoroughly bending) . 8. Part III, Ch. 39, Verses 34-51. These positions should be drawn with care (accom- panied), by qualities like mana (proportionate measure- ment, etc.). (Oh) blameless one, these nine positions are seen in all conditions. There is none besides and TBANSLATION 47 superior to these. I who have always moved around the world, inhabited by creatures moveable and immoveable, (oh) sinless one, narrated in entirety the group of three, i.e., ksaya (decrease), vrddhi (increase) and pramana (proportionate measurement). (These again are) of two kinds : chitra (simple) and viehitra (variegated) ; (the 'latter) again is of three kinds according to the good result (obtained by) proportionate measure, whether it be utt-ama (full), madhyama (middling) and adhama (small). Now I shall relate to you by degrees the rule (to be observed) in ksaya and vrddhi (decrease and increase). This vrddhi as well as ksaya (being) without any (other) name known to the painters, and having (their) origin in the body and its various limbs, is said succinctly to be of thirteen varieties (here) and (varies) otherwise according to the manifoldness of the positions ((lit. of manifesta- tion). (The thirteen positions are) i 1 visible from the back (prsthagata) and belonging to the straight (rj\agata), then " half and half" (ardhardha), " quartered middle" (madhyardha) and the " bent face " (sachl- krtamukha), "bent" (nata), "turned back by the cheek " (gandaparavrtta), and " derived from the back " (prsthagata). Then should be knowm the position "derived from ^the side" (parsvagata), as also " painted as going upwards" (ullepa), and "moving" (chalita) and lastly " with the face upwards " (uttana) and "turned round " (balita). (Oh) king, all these posi- tions are clearly indicated (lit. should be known) by their names. Herein the positions of the feet (are varied) by a series of motions like pratyalldha (i.e., with the left knee advanced and the right knee retracted), vaiffikha, (i.e., with feet a span; apart). The legs again are straight or half straight, standing or moving. The positions of 1 The thirteen positions are an interpolation. The first and eighth positions are identical, 48 TBANSLATION the straight and nom- straight legs should be of two kinds. Thus the position characterised by legs standing is traditionally called samapada (straight-leg), (while) the second (type) should be mandala (im circular motion). Other positions than these are with one leg straight, varied and unsteady. Among these are vaisdkha (the feet being a spam apart), alii ha (the right knee advanced and the left leg retracted), and pratydlidha (the left knee advanced, the right one retracted, those being (typical) positions of the bowmen). Uneven motion in curves characterises the sword and shield carriers. Persons carrying a pike, a spear, (with bamboo handle) a stone javelin, a sting and other instruments walk with difficulty and with one leg in atidha position. (Persons) who carry a wheel, a spear, a club and a (steel) javelin walk (in a sort of) gallop. The flight (lit. running away) of stout men is in some cases depicted with one leg in a straight position and with the other (placed in such a way that) the wanton body should be (shown) with the neck stretched forward. The learned painter should paint a female figure with one foot calmly advanced, with the part about the hips and loins broad and flurried, on account of amorous dalliance. A figure devoid of pramana (proportionate measure) is bound to suffer in the opinion of the passing ages and their (varying) taste inclinations (lit. through the force of time and sentiment). Having this in mind, proportionate measurement should be employed by a learned artist with (the help of) his own intellect, in unison with ksaya and vrddhi. 9. Part III, Ch. 40, Verses 1-30. Brick powder of three kinds has to be mixed with clay, one third part (in amount of the brick powder), Having mixed saffron with oil, (one) should mix (lit. place) TRANSLATION 49 (with it) gum resin, bees' wax, liquorice, molasses and mudga 1 preparation in equal parts. One-third part of burnt yellow-inyrobalan should be added therein. Finally the astringent made of the Bel-tree (Feronia elephantum) destructive (of all injurious agenits) mixed in pro- . portion of two to one should be added by an intelligent artist and also a portion of sand, proportionate to the amount of the whole. Then the artist should drench (this mixture) with moist split pulse dissolved in water. The whole of this moist preparation has to be kept in a safe place for one month only. (After) the moisture has evaporated within a monith, a skilful (artist) should put (this) dried (yet still damp) plaster on the wall, having carefully considered (everything). It should be plaim, even, well distributed, without ridges or holes, neither too thick nor too thin. Should it (look) ill done after having become (quite) dry (due to shrinkage), then it ought to be carefully smoothed by coatings of plaster (made) of that clay (as mentioned before) mixed With resin of the $ala-tree. (Shorea robnsta) and with oil. (It is further made) smooth by (repeated) anointing, constant sprinkling with water and by careful polish. (Oh) lord, when this wall has promptly dried, it does not go to ruins anywhere even at the end of a hundred years. By this means various jewelled floors can be made of variegated mixture in twofold colours. In painting with care on a wall, dry, brilliant and smooth, an artist devoted to the master, should begin his work on an auspicious day, with his face , towards east, thinking of God, having worshipped and bowed down to Brahmins and preceptors who know this (i.e., painting) well, uttering Svasti (Success !), clad in a white garment and restrained in his soul. Then the learned artist should draw (outlines) 1 Phaseolus munga. Muruka most probably is a mistake for mudgaka, C/, Silparatna, Ch. 46. 7 50 TEANSLATION with unoozimg black and white brushes ini due order and fix them oni the duly measured ground. These then should be filled with colours in appropriate places. Green as well as white is the colour ini general (applied as first coating ?). (One) should show that (very clearly). The characteristic of that (i.e., of the colours) (already) has been described in detail (Ch. 27, verses 7-26). Primary colours are said to be five : white, yellow, the colour of the myrobalan, black and blue. (Oh) best of kings, intermediate (colours) are traditionally said to be hundred-fold. (But an artist) should mix (lit. divide) the primary (lit. full) colours according to his own logic and imagination and make thousandfold (what is hundredfold). If the blues are transformed a great deal, green colour is produced. It is either pure, with an admixture of white or blue-predominating. One or more (of these shades) are (used) as it is suitable to the (special) painting. Blue, (too,) is of three kinds : with white predominating, with very little white or with both in equal parts. Thus it is variously transformed by being connected with anything applied as an astringent. Thus beautiful (lit. auspicious) paintings should be made yellowish like the Durva sprouts, greeni like the wood apple and dark like the kidney-bean. Blue tinged with yellowish-white (becomes) changed in colour and of various kinds according as either of the two (constituents) is (present) in greater or smaller degree or in equal parts. For that reason the blue-lotus-colour (ndl6tpalanibha) appears beautiful when partly shaded dark like the masa. By proper selection and distribution of colours paintings become delightful. A painting in red and dark like the red lotus (rakt6tpala) becomes beautiful when combined with white lac, covered by a coating of lac and resin. The latter also transforms various other colours. TEANSLATION 01 (Oh) king, colouring articles are gold, silver, copper, mica, deep coloured brass, red lead, tin, yellow orpiment, yellow myrobalam, lac, vermillion and indigo, oh best of men. There are many other similar colouring substances, oh great king, in every country ; they should be prepared with an astringent. A fluid should be made of iron leaves. A mica defile placed in iron should serve as a distiller. In this way iron becomes suitable for painting. In the (work called) Surasendrabhumija a decoction of hides was said to be a distiller of mica. In the case of all colours, the exudation of the Sindura tree is desirable. A painting, firmly drawn with a magnificent hairy brush (lit. tail) on a canvas dipped im the juice of the best Dnroa grass cannot be (destroyed and remains (intact) for many years though washed by water. 10. Part III, Ch. 41, Verses 1-15. Markaijdeya said : Painting is said to be or rour kinds: (1) "true to life" (satya), (2) "of the lute player " (vainika), (3) "of the city " or " of common man " (nagara) and (4) "mixed" (misra). I am going to speak about their characteristics (now). Whatever painting bears a resemblance to this earth, with proper proportion, tall in height, with a nice body, round and beautiful is called " true to life." That is called vainika which is rich in the display of postures, maintaining strict proportions, placed in an exactly square field, not phlegmatic, not (very) long and well finished. That painting should be known as nagara, which is round, with firm and well developed limbs with scanty garlands and ornaments. (Oh) best of men, the misra derives its name from being composed (of the three categories). 52 TRANSLATION Methods of producing light and shade are said to be three : (1) Crossing lines (lit. lines in the form of leaves, patraja), (2) by stumping (airika), and (3) bydots(vinduja). The first method (of shading) is called (patraja) on account of lines in the shape of leaves. The airikd method is called so because it is said to be very fine. The vinduja method is called so from the restrained (i.e., not flowing) handling of the brush. Indistinct, uneven and inarticulate delineation, representation of the human figure with lips (too) thick, eyes and testicles (too) big, and unrestrained (in its move- ments and actions) such are the defects of chitra (pictorial art). Sweetness, variety, spaciousness of (back) ground (bhulamba), proportionate to the position (sthana) (of the figure), similarly (to what is seen in nature), (and) minute execution are mentioned to be the (good) qualities of chitra. (Oh) best of men, in works of chitra, delineation, shading, ornamentation and colouring should be known as decorative (i.e., as the elements of visualisation). The masters praise the rekhas (delinea- tion and articulation of forms), the connoisseurs praise the display of light and shade, women like the dis- play of ornaments, the rest of the public like rich- ness of colours. Considering this, great care should be taken in the work of chitra, so that, (oh) best of men, it may be appreciated by every one. Bad seat, thirst, inattentiveness, and bad conduct are the root evils (in the painter) that destroy painting. In a work of painting, the ground should be well chosen, well covered, very delight- ful, pleasant in every direction and its surface (lit. space) should be well coated (lit. anointed). A painting should be then very beautiful, when a learned (artist) paints it with golden colour, with articulate and yet TEANSLATION 53 very soft lines, with distinct and well arranged garments, and lastly not devoid of the beauty of (proportionate) measurement. 11. Part III, Ch. 42, Verses 1-84. M&rkandeya said : A king (ruler of the earth) is to be depicted just like a god. In the case of kings (however), the hair on the body should be drawn one by one. Sages, gandharvas, daityas, danavas, ministers, the brahmins (in general), Samvatsara (&&?-, fli/va>, and the family priest (purohita) should have the size of a Bhadra, (oh) lord of men. Sages should be represented with long tresses of hair clustered on the top of their head, with a black antelope-skin as upper garment, emaciated, yet full of splendour. The gods and gandharvas should be represented without crowns but with crests (oh, great king). Brahmins should be represented with white garments, and emitting divine splendour, (oh) great king. An. artist should draw ministers, Sarhvatsara, and the family priest adorned with all ornaments and diadems. Daityas and danavas should have frightening mouths, frowning faces, round eyes and (one) should represent them with gaudy garments though without crown. Oh lord of the earth, their dress should be of the uddhata (haughty) style. (Oh) king, Vidyddharas should be of the size of a " Rudra " with garlands and ornaments and accompanied by their wives. They should be shown either on land or in the air and with swords in their hands. Kinnaras, rdkshasas and nagas should be of the size of a " Malavya." (Oh) lord of men, yak$as (should have) the size of a " Ruchaka." (The artist) should represent the chief amongst men with the size of a Sasaka. Pisachas, dwarfs, hun^h-backed men, pramathas and (those) who enjoy the earth, should be represented 54 TEANSLATION consistent with the rules of (proportionate) measurement, and in accordance with the rules of rupa (creative form). The females are traditionally said to be suited to the measure (of the male type) . Kinnaras are said to be of two kinds, (some) with human faces and horse-bodies, and others again are said to be with horse-faces and human bodies. Those with horse-faces should be decorated with all ornaments, with splendour and musical instruments. Rakshasas should look terrible* with the hair erect and bewildered eyes. The nag as should be fashioned in the shape of the gods (with the difference that) they should wear snake-hoods. All yakqas are said to be decorated with ornaments and they have been dealt with by me (already). No special measure is fixed for the pramathas among the suras (gods) nor for the pisachas. Ganas among the gods should have the faces of various creatures and should wear various sorts of dresses and weapons, engaged in various pastimes and sports, (oh) great king. But the ganas of Vishnu should all have the same outward appearance, and still there should be made four divisions of them. The ganas of Vasudeva should be represented shining and similar to Vasudeva. The ganas of Samkar- sliana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha again are similar to each of them and carry the weapon (of the special manifestation of Vishnu) and his expression. Prostitute women should have the size of a " Buchaka." (They should be painted) with vermillion or emerald colour, moon-white (in com- plexion) or dark like the petals of the blue lotus. The dress of prostitutes should be unrestrained (uddhata), calculated to -excite erotic feeling. Women of good family should be made bashful and of the size of a "Malavya" wearing ornaments and not very showy dresses. The wives and mothers of daityas, ddnavas, yaksas and rdkshasas ought to be according to the rules (laid down for their men). The same holds good for the wives of pisachas. TBANSEATION 55 Widows are to be shown with grey (hair) wearing white clothes and devoid of all ornaments. A hunch-backed, a dwarfish and an old woman also should be (represented) in (their) natural condition. Amongst a host of royal wives an old chamberlain should be represented. A vaisya should be of the size of a ' ' Ruchaka ' ' and a sudra of the size of a Sasaka. (Oh) lord of men, these two should (have) dresses suitable to their caste. Wives of daily as should always have attendant women. By one who knows painting, the commander of am army should be represented as strong, proud, tall, with fleshy shoulders, hand and neck, with big head, powerful chest, prominent nose and broad chin, with eyes raised up to- wards the sky, and with firm hips. (Oh) great king, soldiers should generally be painted with frowns on their face s. Foot-soldiers should be represented with short and showy uniforms; they should have arrogant looks and carry weapons. Swordsmen and shieldmen should be of the Karoataka type. Good archers and bowmen should have bare legs. Their dress should not be very short and they should wear shoes. Elephants, horses and such other animals should be possessed of the marks described. Elephant-riders should have a swarthy complexion, their hair should be tied in a knot, they should wear ornaments as well. The uniform of the cavalry should be of the northern type. Bards should have a resplendent dress, their look should be directed upward and the veins on their neck should be shown. Heralds should be drawn tawny and squint-eyed, slightly resembling the danavas, and as a rule, carrying staffs in their hands. In a fight (one) should not represent the squint-eyed and the tawny (heralds). The doorkeeper is known by the sword hang- ing by his side. He holds a staff in his hand, does not look very mild anid his dress is not too conspicuous. Mer- chants should be represented with their heads covered on 56 TRANSLATION all sides by turbans. Musicians, dancers and those who can correctly regulate the sound of musical instruments should wear a gorgeous dress, (oh) best of men. The most respectable people of country and town should be painted with almost grey hair, adorned with ornamemts suitable to their rank, wearing white garments, stooping forwards, ready to help and with a mien calm by nature. Artisans should be represented eager in the pursuit of their respective crafts. Wrestlers should be drawn with broad shoulders, fleshy limbs, thick neck, head and lips, with closely cropped hair, arrogant and impetuous. Bulls, lions and other animals should be represented in appro- priate surroundings as they are seen in nature, (oh) lord of men. I have hitherto given the full description of the appearance of objects not (usually) seen. Things that usually are visible to all, should be well represented resem- bling (what is seen in nature). The chief (aim) of paint- ing is to produce an exact likeness. Men should be paint- ed according to their country; their colour, dress and (general) appearance should be well observed. Having carefully ascertained the country, employment and place (of occupation) and the work (a man is engaged in), seat, bed, conveyance and dress should be drawn (correspond- ingly), (oh) lord of men. Rivers should be represented in humani form, with their conveyances (vahanas). Their knees should be bent and their hands should hold full pitchers. (Oh) best of men, in representing mountains an artist should show the peak on the head (of the personification). The representa- tion of islands makes the earth beautiful. (Oh) best of men, seas should be drawn with hands carrying jewel- vessels, and (the artist) should depict water in the place of the halo and further he should partially show the signs of weapons oni their heads. When representing a tank, (the artist) should show a pitcher and when representing TKANSLATION 57 a conch-shell, (he shall show) a conch-shell. (Oh) best of kings, of a lotus, a lotus (should be depicted), and of all other things representations (should be drawn) resembling (what is seen in nature). Every part of the object to be represented should agree with the general treatment of the whole object. Of divine beings an artist should show as a distinctive mark, the rosary and the book. Now I am going to speak about the appearance of things actually seen. A learned (artist) should show the sky without any special colour and full of birds, (oh) king. Similarly (the artist) should show the firmament adorned by stars and the earth with its vegetation in all its variety (lit. with all its distinctive attributes). (Oh) best of kings, (an artist) should show a mountain by a cluster of rocks, peaks, (with) metal (-vein) trees, waterfalls and snakes. A learned (artist) should show a forest by various sorts of trees, birds and beasts. (He should show) water by innumerable fishes and tortoises, by lotuses and other aquatic animals and plants. A learned (artist) should show a city by beautiful temples, palaces, shops, houses and lovely royal roads-. An artist should show a village by its boundaries containing sparingly gardens. Fortresses should be shown with battlements, ramparts, high mounts and entrances in their enclosures. Markets should be shown; containing articles of merchandise; drinking places should be represented full of men engaged in drinking, and those engaged in gambling should be drawn devoid of upper garments, the winners merry and the losers full of grief. The battlefield has to be shown as containing four divisions of the army (i.e., elephant corps, cavalry, chariot corps and infantry), with soldiers engaged in fighting, strewn with corpses and besmeared with blood. The burning ground should be represented with funeral piles and dead bodies. (A painter) should represent a road, with caravans consisting of camels and other (animals) 8 58 TRANSLATION carrying burdens. The night should be shown -with moon, planets and stars, with approaching thieves >and 'men (fast) asleep and others engaged in worldly pleasures (lit. showing what is of the world). In the first part of the rwight women are to be shown going out to meet their lovers. The (breaking of the) dawn is to be shown) by the rising sun, the lamps (looking) dim and crowing cocks, or a man should be drawni as if ready for work. The evening is to be showiu by its red glow and by Brahmins engaged ini controlling their senses. The (setting in) of darkness has to be shown by men approaching their abodes. That the moon is shining should be shown by the kumuda flower in full bloom, while the many petals of the lotus flower should be closed. When, depicting a fchower of rain, (that it is) raining should be shown by a man well covered. That the sun is shining should be shown by (drawing) creatures suffering from heat. (An artist) should represent spring with merry men and women, by "laughing " vernal trees, with bees swarming about and cuckoos. The summer has to be shown with dried pools, with languid men, with deer seeking the shade of trees, and buffaloes burying themselves in mud. An artist should show the rainy season by flashes of lightning, beautified by rainbows, accompanied by heavily laden clouds, birds perched on trees, and lions and tigers sheltered in caves. A painter should paint the autumn with trees heavy with fruits, the earth (covered) with ripe corn (-fields) and with tanks beautified by lotuses and swans. The "dewy" season (hemanta, the approach of winter), a learned artist should show by frost on the horizon, with the earth lopped (of her crops) and the ground covered by dew-drops. A learned (painter) should paint the winter with the horizon -shrouded in hoar-frost, with shivering men and delighted crows arid elephants. TRANSLATION 59 (Oh) lord of men, seasons should be represented by trees in flowers and fruits and creatures delighted (or otherwise) and looking at nature. Sentiments and expressions should be represented as already spoken of. (An artist) should also suitably employ hereini what was said about dancing. 1 A painting in which an object is devoid of shading (varttana) is called 'mediocre' (madhyama). A picture which in some parts is shaded and in others remains without shading is ' bad ' (adhama). A picture shaded all over is ' good ' (uttama). (A painting im which everything is drawn ini an acceptable (form) in its proper position, in its proper time and age, becomes excellent, while in the opposite case it becomes (quite) different. A painting drawn with care, pleasing to the eye, thought out with supreme intelligence and remarkable by its exe- cution, beauty, charm (lit. amorous pastime), taste, and uch other qualities, yields the desired pleasure. 11. Part III, Ch. 43, Verses 1-39. Markandeya said : The sentiments (rasa) represented in painting are said to be nine, viz., srngara (erotic), hasya (laugh-exciting), karuna (pathetic), vlra (heroic), raudra (furious), bhayanaka (fearful), vibhatsa (loath- some), adbhuta (strange and supernatural) and ianta (peaceful). That which shows beauty and nicety of delineation of form, and dress and ornaments according to the taste of the learned, becomes the srngara rasa. Whatever is dwarf -like, hunch-backed, or otherwise deformed in ap- pearance, with unnecessary shortness of hands, should be laugh-exciting in sentiment. (A painter) should depict in the "pathetic sentiment" what is pity-exciting in ad- versity, sale, abandonment, separation, mendicancy and 1 In another chapter of the Vishijuidharmottara, 60 TBANSLATION such other circumstances. Harshness, anger, slaughter these things befit the raudra in which there should be flashing weapons and bright ornaments. Display of prowess arising out of a firm determination, coupled with the look of nobleness, with perhaps a smile on the lips, and a slight frown appertains to the '"heroic." Wicked, hard-looking and almost mad vindictiveness, bent on kill- ing appertains to the fearful rasa of painting. That painting (which depicts) a terrible position (i.e., a scene of execution) and (is) loathsome on account of the (re- presentation of the) cremation ground, should be the best of all paintings in (showing) the vlbhatsa sentiment. Whenever (a painiting) depicts (lit. shows) thought and a slight horripilation and the submissive face of Tarkshya and other (similar figures), it is indicative of the adbhuta sentiment. Whatever is shown benign in appearance, in meditation, and in postures and seats suited to the same, full of ascetic people, appertains to the santa rasa. Pictures to embellish homes should belong to srngara, hasya and santa rasas . The rest should never be used (in the house) of anyone. (But) in the place of a ruler and in the temple of a god all the sentiments may be re- presented. (Yet these representations) should not be made in the residential quarters of the ruler. They should be painted in that part of the palace of kings which is occupied by the assembly houses. Except in assembly (halls) of kings and in the temples, the inauspicious, e.g., bulls with horns (immersed) in the sea, and (men) with their hands (sticking out of) the sea (whilst their) body is bent (under water), mem with ugly features, or those inflicted by sorrow due to death and pity, war and the burning ground, should never be depicted. (Oh) great king, Vidyadharas, the nine-gems, 1 sages, Garuda, Hanuman 1 The nine gems of Kuvera, \. e., Padma, Maha Padma,, Saftkha, Makara, Kachchhapa, Mukunda, Kunda, Nila, and Kharva. TEANSLATION 61 and all those who are celebrated as auspicious oni the earth, should always be painted in. the residential houses of men. (Oh) king, in one's own* house the work of paint- ing should not be done by oneself. Weakness or thickness of delineation, want of articula- tion, improper juxtaposition of colours are said to be defects of painting. (Proper position, proportion and spacing, gracefulness and articulation, resemblance, decrease and increase i.e., foreshortening) these are known as the eight (good) qualities of painting. Painting which has not (the proper) position, devoid of (the appropriate) rasa, empty to look at, hazy with darkness and devoid of life- movement (chetana) is said to be inexpressive. One that seems as if dancing by its posture or appears to look frightened, laughing or graceful, thereby appears as if endowed with life, as if breathing. These pictures are (considered) of an auspicious type. (A painter) should make his (painting) to be without darkness and emptiness. No (painting depicting a) figure with defective limbs, covered all over with hair, overwhelmed with fear due to internal disease, or smeared with a yellow pigment (ought to be executed) . An intelligent artist paints what looks probable (lit. what commands trust), but never what tran- scends it. (Oh) lord of mem, a painting (by) the skilled, the righteous and those (who are) versed in the Sastras brings on prosperity and removes adversity very soon. A paintirg cleanses and curbs anxiety, augments future good, causes unequalled and pure delight, kills the evils of bad dreams and pleases the household deity. The place where a picture is firmly placed does not look empty. He who paints waves, flames, smoke and streamers fluttering in the air according to the movement of the wind should be considered a great painter. He knows chitra who makes one portion of the body lower than the 62 TRANSLATION other/ who (represents) the dead devoid of life-movement and the sleeping possessed of it. In painting (one) should carefully avoid, in the case of all these, placing one (figure) in front of another. In every case (their) regular suc- cession is praiseworthy. Oh lord of men, the same rules as applied to painting also refer to carving in iron, gold, silver, copper and other metals, and also (to) images made of iron, stone and wood. The same rules that are valid for painting are also applied to clay-modelling. It is said to be of two kinds : ghana and sushira, massive and hollow. Iron, stone, wood and clay may be worked massively; skin, brass and iron may be worked hollow. (In the latter case) a thick superim- position of clay has to be given to the skin and the paint- ing has to be executed on it as on a canvas. In ihis treatise only suggestions are given, (oh king), for (the subject) can iDever be described in detail even mmany hundred years. Whatever has not been said here, should be inferred from (the rules of) dancing, (oh) lord of the earth ; whatever is not noted in (the rules of) dancing should not be made use of here (either), (though) it be interesting, (oh) lord of men. Painting is the best of all arts, conducive to dharma, and emancipation. It is very auspicious when placed in a house. As Sumeru is the best of mountains, Garuda, the chief of birds, and a lord of the earth, the most exalted amongst men, so is painting the best of all arts. [Here ends the translation of the Chapters dealing with the Rules of Painting^ To suggest the 3rd dimension. TRANSLATION Continued RULES OF IMAGE-MAKING 12. Part III, Ch. WK, Verses 1-21. Vajra said : Oh sinless one, tell me how to make the image of a deity, so that the image made in accordance with the Sastras may always be near. Markandeya said : Oh king, listen to me while 1 relate (the process) of making the image of a deity. Oh king, in the beginning I shall speak to you about the auspicious characteristic of the image of Vishnu of three forms and immeasurable prowess. His Brahml form mani- fests itself in the rajas, which brings into existence every thing and his Vaishiiavi (form) should be known as belong- ing to sattva, sustaining the universe, and then the Eaudra (form) is tamas-predominating, causing destruction. A learned image-maker should make Brahma four- faced, on a lotus seat,, clad in black antelope skin, capable of being (easily) gratified, wearing matted hair, four- armed, seated on a chariot of seven swans. In the right hand (should be) the auspicious rosary and in the left the waterpot. Oh king, the eye of that tranquil-looking image, possessing all (Sastric) characteristics and wearing all ornaments closed in meditation should resemble the end of the lotus petal. One should represent the god as a (regular) image or in a book. Then (one) should make Vishnu, the god of gods, seated on Garuda, with the bosom shining with the kaus- tubha (jewel), wearing all ornaments, resembling in colour the water-laden cloud and (clothed) in a blue and beautiful garment. Pour faces should be made and arms twice that. The Eastern face is called Saumya (placid), the Southern Narasimha (man-lion), the Western Kapila and the 9 65 66 TRANSLATION Northern Varaha (boar-like). Vishnu wears vanamala (long garland of flowers), and in his right hands (should be shown) an arrow, a rosary, a club and so forth, and oh great king, in his left hands should be shown a skin, a garment, and a bow. Oh pious (king), now listen to the (description of the) image of the bow-carrier (i. e., Siva). (One) should re- present Mahadeva, the god of gods, seated on a bull and five faces should be made for him, oh descendant of the Yadus, all placid-looking, the Southern one (only) fierce, with a garland of skulls, destructive of the universe, all other faces, except the Northern one with three eyes (each). On the crest of matted locks (of the Northern face) the crescent moon should be and the fifth face on the top of it. As his s acred thread one should make VasukI (the serpent king). Mahadeva, the god of gods, should be represented with ten arms. Oh strong-armed (king), in his right hands should be a rosary, a trident, an arrow, a staff and a lotus. In the left hands of the trident-bearer, the god of gods, should be a citron, a bow, a mirror, a water-pot and a skin. The colour of the whole (image) should resemble the rays of the moon. Thus has been described to you the image of Janardana of three, forms. Now I narrate to you the nature of the lotus, oh king, on which the worship of gods should be performed. 13. Part III, Ch. 43, Verses 1-8. The lotus (may be) of gold, silver, copper or some other material, two cubits (hastas) in measurement, \\ith beauti- ful filament and divided into eight parts. The pericarp should be round and raised by one-eighth part and clinging to the petals. Kound the pericarp, surcharged with round seeds, measuring a yava only, there should be fifty-two TEANSLATION 6T petals. Verily, that should be made in width by the one- sixteenth part (i.e., the distance between pericarp and petals horizontally where the pericarp no longer clings to them should be the 16th part of two hastas). The rest one should fill up with eight very glossy petals .(i.e., the outer circle of petals). Then its installation should be made and on it one should worship the gods. Thereon one should worship Brahma, thereon one should adore Hari and Kudra as well as Sri. On it (again) one should worship Indra, the lord of the world and king of the gods, and thereon one should adore the sun and the moon. That god only and no other should be worshipped on the lotus, by contemplating whom in mind, it was set up. Thus has been narrated to you the nature of the lotus. The whole of the earth is symbolised by the lotus And on it the gods should be worshipped ; being worshif ped on it, they become propitious. 14. Part III, Ch. 46, Verses 1-19. Vajra said : By you the Supreme God (Purusha) has been described as devoid of form, smell and rasa and desti- tute of sound and touch ; so how can this form be made of him ? MSrkandeya replied : Prakrti and Vikrti (come into existence) through (the variation in) the form of the Supreme Soul. That form of him which is scarcely to be seen was called Prakrti. The whole universe should be known as the Vikrti (transformation) of Him, endowed with form. Worship and meditation (of the Supreme Being) are possible (only when He is) endowed with form. The form of the Supreme deity, as he manifests himself should be worshipped according to rites. Because the invisible condition is apprehended with great difficulty by the cor- poreal beings, by the Supreme Lord, through His own -will 68 TBANSLATION was shown that (form) and the gods (too) point out (that) form (of Him) in His various manifestations. For this reason God is worshipped endowed with form. That form is full of significance ; hear this from me ready to speak. Through (the preponderance of) rajas the colour is re'ddish, hence Brahman, greeted by all creatures and the best of the gods should be known as resembling that tip of the lotus. Rgveda is (his) Eastern face, Yajurveda the Southern, Samaveda the Western and Atharva (veda) the Northern. Those that are the Vedas -are these faces and the four quarters are the arms. The worlds movable and immovable are verily (sprung from) water, and Brahman holds those (primeval waters) ; so the kamandalu (water vessel) rests in his hand. Kala (Time) is indicated in the hand of Brahman by the rosary, because Kala (Time, Death) is called so on account of seizing (kalana) all creatures. All sacrifice is propagated by work white and non-white (i. c., pious and impious). Therefore, the garment of the lord,, the skin of the black antelope is white amd not white (i. e. 9 matted). The seven regions are known as bhuh, bhuvah, svar, mahah, lana, tapas and satya. These regions are the swans in the chariot of Brahman, the great god. Oh best of kings, let the pericarp of the lotus, which took its birth in the navel of Vishnu, be known as Meru. Oh king, everywhere steadiness is the result of meditationi, and hence Brahman assumes (the meditative position) by means of his corporeal lotus seat. Of the (Supreme) Soul, one should thinik the best position as devoid of form. For the sight of the worlds He exists with eyes closed in meditation. The medicinal plants which help the sustenance of the earth should be known as the matted locks of Brahman, the high-souled, who moves everywhere. The repositories of vidya (learning) which TEANSLAT10K 69 (act) as revealers of the world, should be known as the various ornaments of that great God. This form of that imcomparable (soul) that pervades the whole world has been described to you. Thus the Pre-eminent Onie of the world occupies the whole world with his body. 15. Part HI, Ch. 47, Verses 1-18. The universe is regarded as the transformation of the Supreme Being. All transformation! consists of krshna (black colour), and through that is the sustenance of worldly life. That lord, the creator of all creatures, assumes the krshna 1 form. The wearing of all ornaments by Brahman, as explained, is applicable to Hari too. He sustains by his bosom knowledge (jnand) as the stain- less kaustubha (jewel). Vanamala is said to be long, variegated and black (krshna), oh king, by which this whole universe, movable and immovable is bound together. Avidya which supports this samsard (i.e., worldly illusion) is his garment. Vidya (i.e., learning) is pointed out as white, and ajndna (non-learning, absence of knowledge) is said to be black. But avidya has beeni described as occupying the middle, the vidya (knowledge or wisdom that is to be found in) jnana. (It is) neither white nor dark, hence this vidya (is) the best. Mind existing in all creatures supports the intermediate space and it fills the quarters which are like gold and mind should be known as garuda pervading all beings and bodies. Hence there is nothing which is more quick and powerful than mind. 1 Pun on the word Krshna, suggesting at the same time an identification of Brahma and Vishnu or Krshna, and making the black colour, i.e., the strain responsible for the manifestation of the world contrasted with pure existence that becomes no stain and no colour* 70 TEANSLATION The four quarters, oh pious (one), and the same number of intermediate direction these eight are specified as the 8 (eight) arms of Vishnu (lit. bow-carrier). Oh descendant of Yadu, strength, knowledge, sove- reignty and energy are the four faces of that (great) god of gods. The Divine Vasudeva, the Lord Samkarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha are celebrated as manifestations of these four attributes beginning with strength. Each of the four images of these high-souled mani- festations of Vishnu should have two hands and one face. The sun and the moon should be known (as the attributes) of the hands of Vasudeva, and the club and the ploughshare of the hands of Samkarshana. Oh strong- armed (one) the bow and the arrow should be known (as attributes of) the hands of Pradyumna and by the experts the shield and the sword are known (to be) attributes of the hands of Aniruddha. The sun and the moon should be known as Purusha and Prakrti. These two are taken to be the wheel and the mace ini the hand of Vasudeva. Know the ploughshare to be Time and the pestle to be Death, (and) with these two the fierce (Eudra) Samkarshaija ploughs this (universe), movable and immovable. The bow and arrow of fire are in the hands of Pradyumna. With these the Yogi hits the supreme target, namely, the object of contemplation!. Oh strong-armed one, the skin (i.e., shield) in the hand of Aniruddha should be known as the covering of ajnana (absence of supreme knowledge) necessary for the creation of the world. Eenunciatiorw is the sword Nandaka. As cutting of the tie (of affection) by it, the ascetics delight (nandanti) so it is traditionally called Nandaka. TRANSLATION 71 Thus has been narrated to you the form of that Formless (Being who) covers all the universe. The highest, pre-eminent of the universe, supports the entire world through this form. 16. Part III, Ch. 48, Verses 1-20. MSrkaijdeya said : Oh strong-armed (one), Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha should be known (as the four faces of Siva), the fifth face (being) Isana. The earth is said to be Sadyojata, water again Vamadeva, heat is Aghora and wind is regarded as Tatpurusha. In Isana, the fifth face on the top, we have the sky. Now I shall speak about the five faces of Siva one by one. Of the high-souled Sambhu, the eastern face should be known as Mahadeva. The three eyes of it are the sun, the moon and the fire. The southern face is terrific and is called Bhairava. That face of Him which is western is called Nandivaktra. And the northern (one) of that God should be knowru as Umavaktra and. the purifying fifth (face) of Him should be known as going by the name of Sadasiva. All have three eyes except Vamadeva which has only two eyes. The face Mahadeva is the earth and the Bhairava face should be next. 1 Then the Nandivaktra is the wind and (the face) belonging to Eudra is called ' the water/ Oh delighter of the Yadus, the Sadasiva face should be known as the sky. The ten quarters are His arms. (Two) should be known (as being allotted) to each face. In the hands of (i.e., allotted to the) Mahadeva (face) should be the aksham&la (rosary) and kamandalu (water-pot). Oh strong-armed (one), bow and arrow should be in the Sadasiva face. Them the bow belonging to Mahe^vara is called Pinaka. 1 No equivalence is given there. But evidently it is heat, i.e., eight tejat ought to be read instead of Mas, a copyist's slip. 72 TEANSLATION Oh destroyer of enemies, their significance has been ex- plained beforehand. The staff and the citron are in the hands allotted to the Bhairava (face). The Sceptre and death have been specified. 1 The citron) again> in the hand (has the following significance). Oh king, in the hand of Bhairava the gem of seed is traditionally said to exist full of the atoms of the entire seed of the universe. Oh delighter of the Yadus, the shield and the trident should be known to be im the hand (allotted to) the Nandi (face). The nature and significance (of the shield) 2 was described to you beforehand. Mirror and lotus should be known (being held) ini the hands of the Devi face (i.e. Umavaktra). Pure knowledge is the mirror and asceticism the lotus. Of Mahadeva, the (great) God, the matted locks are explained belonging to Brahman.. The lunar digit oni the forehead of Siva is celebrated as the (six-fold divine) attribute (aisvarya). Anger (which serves) as death to the three worlds is known as Vasuki. The spotted and extensive tiger-skin is the thirst for birth. The Bull is the Divine Dharma, of four feet. The thing productive of the universe is what is celebrat- ed as Prakrti. Prakrti is all white and hence Mahesvara is white. Thus has been narrated to you the form of that Form- less (Being who) covers all the universe. The best (sus- tainer) of the universe through this form sustains the entire world. 17. Part III, Ch. 49, Verses 1-7. Vajra said : Oh unmoved one, tell me (please) about the construction of the image of the Nasatyas. You 1 Corrupt reading. 5 Bead charma instead of dharma. TRANSLATION 73 are expected to know all about the forms of the Nasatyas. Markancjeya replied 1 The physicians of the gods should be made by (in company of) the gods, having two arms, the colour like that of the lotus-leaf and gar- ments resembling the lotus, decorated with all ornaments and specially with beautiful eyes. In the right hands of them should be (placed) divine medicinal plants (oh) twice-born one, and in the left hands books worthy of being showni. (Oh) descendant of Yadu, oni the right side of one and on the left of another a pair of women, with beautiful forms and agreeable to look at, should be shown. Their names are stated as Eupa-Sampad anid Akrii. Rupa- sampad is said to be of the colour of the madhuka flower, and Prakrti is said on this earth to be like the reed-stalk. (These two) should not be represented with pots ini their hands or wearing garments as white as the moon. Oh chief of the Yadu race, thus has been described to you to-day the form of the Nasatyas. He who meditates upon or worships (them) in this earth becomes a destroyer of all diseases of men. 18. Part III, Ch. 50, Verses 1-13. Vajra said : Oh best of the Bhrgus, fully narrate to me the process of making the images of $akra, Klnasa (i.e., Yama), Varuija and Dhan'ada (i.e., Kuvera). Markandeya replied : Sakra, the king of the gods, should be of white colour, and on an elephant with four tusks; and SachI held by him should be placed on his left lap. Sakra should wear a blue garment, have a golden com- plexioni, with all ornaments and with eyes going obliquely to the forehead. Sakra should be done with four hands and Sachi with two. On> the right hands of Sakra should be placed the lotus and the elephant-goad. One left hand 10 74 TRANSLATION is to be placed on the ba the hand of $akra is aniger, the subduer of the wicked. Vasudeva is traditionally known as j&akra ; so Saehl is regarded as Lakshml. The Santana-sprout in her hand should be kiuowm as progeny. Airavana is kiuowm as wealth and its tusks are explained as the (four) very powerful (sources of) strength, (viz.) those powers (which are derived from) divine agenicy, (wise) counsel, suzerainty and exertions Oh king, thus I have narrated to you this Sakra form of Vasudeva, the king of the gods. I will tell you now the form of Yama, in whose control are the happiness and misery of men. 19, Part III, Ch. 51, Verses 1-21. Markan^eya said : Yama should be represented oia a buffalo, resembling (m colour) the water-ladea cloud , 75 a garment (of the colour) of heated gold, and adorned; by all ornaments. Dhi3m6naa of the colour of the blue lotus should be placed on* the left lap. She should be s&own with two hands, ami Yama with four. Sceptre and sword should be displayed in the right Jiands of Yama. Oft< the tip of the sceptre should be done a- head with a row of flames. One Itefihand rests on the back of DhQm6rnai, and the other carries a skin. The right hand of Dhu-m&rna should be placed on* the back of Yama, and in her left hand should be shown a beautiful citron. On the right side of him, one should represent Chitragupta with two hands andi placid-looking, keeping an eye on Yama and in: his right hand one should show a pen, and in the left a leaf. Oni the left should be shown the terrific-looking Kala, holding a noose. Know Yama to be Samkarshana as- suming a taman body for the destruction of the people with a view to maintaining the moral law. On account of the prevalence of tamas Yama is described as resembling in colour the blue-lotus. His gar- ment is celebrated, oh destroyer of foes, through Vasu- deva. By Brahma the four-handedness of that great god rs extolled and his wearing of all ornaments is alro specified by Brahma. That loss of consciousness which is Death should be known as the buffalo. Yama carries in his hand the unerring sceptre repre- senting Death. That he should carry the sword and the shield is prescribed by Aniruddha. Oh delighter of the Yadus, Dhum6rna should be known as K&laratri (the Night of Death). It is enjoined by Siill (i.e., Siva) that she, too, should carry a citron. Chitragupta is really pointed out as the soul existing in all bodies. The leal' (represents) dharma, and the peiu in his hand adharma. 76 TRANSLATION Kala being kdla (black) by the very form, stancb close to Yama. The noose in his hand is the inaccessible and the fearsome path of Yama. Vajra said : The form of Vishnu which causes destruc- tion is regarded as Samkarshana. That god was described by you as grand, having a body as white as the moon. Why on the seat which bespeaks destruction has Yama a black (krshna) form ? Oh propagator of the race of Bhrgu, remove this doubt of mine. Markandeya replied : The Samkarshana form of Vishnu i;s terrible (when) destroying. On the expiry of a Kalpa that (forip) brings about the destruction of the worlds. Oh pious (king), the world when destroyed goes into Prakrti. So onie with the colour of Prakrti brings about the destruction of the worlds. (God) in the shape of Yama having brought about the destruction of all creatures again and again, does never support the combination! of (all) creatures ini Prakrti. In that Vikara which consists of pleasure and pain he brings about the colour and form of Vikara and ini this way the universe is destroyed. This form of Yama has been described to you which destroys the sin of all gods. Oh high-souled (king), I narrate to you now how to make the image of Varuna, the lord of waters. 20. Part III, Ch. 52, Verses 1-21. Markaiideya said : Varuna, the lord of waters should be made on a chariot with seven swans, in coloui resembling the glossy lapis-lazuli and wearing a white cloth. The god with a slightly prominent belly will be four headed, wearing all ornaments and decorated with necklac* of pearls. tKANSLATION 77 Towards the left, one should place the emblem of makara, and over the head (should be spread) a very white umbrella. Oh king, on the left lap should be showm the two-handed Gauri, his wife, beautiful in all the limbs. On her left hand is the blue lotus and her right one rests om the back of the god. In the right hands of the god should be placed a lotus and a noose, and (one) should put in the left (hands) a conch and a jewel-box. On the right side Ganga should be shown on a makara with a chamara (fly-whisk) , and lotus in the hands and with a beautiful face and white as the moon. On the left, should be made Yamuna on a tortoise with chamara, carrying a nlldtpala in the hand, placid, of the colour of the blue cloud. Oh king, as the colour of waters is that of the glossy lapis-lazuli, so Varuna, who represents them, is of that colour. Oh best of the twice-born, they again are very white (when) in their natural colours, so his garment is very white like them. Vajra said : My curiosity is intense and I wish to hear this (viz.), the true and untrue colours of water des- cribed by you. Mfirkandeya replied : Oh delighter of the Yadus, untrue (i.e., unnatural) colour of waters is that of the lapis-lazuli. That colour of the sky having undergone reflection is (so) seen in them. That colour which is seen, oh king of waters, by the falling down of waterfalls, resembling moonlight, (belongs to them) when staying in their natural condition. Varuoa, the lord of waters, is Pradyumna, the descen- dant of Yasudeva, and his wife Gauri should be known as Rati, oh delighter of the Yadus. Oh lord (of the earth), the delightful lotus in her 78 TRANSLATION liand (represents) good luck. Ok strong-armed one, the lotus in the hand of Vanraa (stands) for the law of Brahma. Know the conch to be riches, and the noose the fetter (that binds) mmsara (world) ; the jewelled ease iia? the hand should be known as the earth containing all (sorts oi> jewels. Fain^ is the very white umbrella, and friendship the makara, and his wearing of ornaments on the arm has been narrated by Brahma. (Seas of) salt, milk, ghee,, curdled milk, rice-gruel, exudation of sugar-cane and spirituous liquor these are 1 celebrated as the (seven) seas in the world, oh best chief of men, (they are) the seven swans in the chariot of that high-souled Varuna. His wife should be known as Yamuna, and Bhagi- rath! (represents) success, oh twice-born (one), and the makara and the tortoise represent virility and (appro- priate) moment. Lotus is in] the hand of heavenly Ganga, and (blue) lotus (utpala) belongs to the ancient Yamuna. Thus has been described to you by me the image of that lord of waters who wears the noose. Oh moon of the Yadu race, now I will narrate to you how to make the image of lord of riches. 21. Part III, Ch. 53, Verses 1-13. Markandeya said : The wealth-giver (Kuvera) should be made of the colour of the lotus-leaf, having a man as his v&hana, lovely eyes, with necklace resting on the belly, with a beautiful garment and a coat of maiil. Two large teeth should be done in the mouth of him, who wears a beard. His crown paining his foes should be made inclined towards the left, TEANSLATIOIvl 79 Ti*e goddess Rddhi, a boon-giver should be maxle on the left lap. The right hand of (tfea/tj) two-handed (goddess) rests on the back of the god. Oh destroyer of foes, her left hand should be made holding a jewelled vessel and in the right hands (of Kuvera) , should be made a mace and a spear. (One should make) a flag characterised by an emblem of lions, (and) a raised platform for the feet, His treasure- bags should be made in the form of conch and lotus, and they contain his treasures. A conch and a lotus, rendered as receptacles, should re- present two hoards. His face is inclined sideways between conch and lotus. The lord of riches should be known by you as Aniruddha. The decoration (of all his limbs) by all ornaments is pres- cribed by Brahma. The wealth known as gold is the chief of all (sorts) of riches. Through His favour he wears cloth of the colour of gold. The spear is traditionally said to be the power, and the mace, the administration of polity. Bddhi is said to t be the course of worldly life, and should be known by (her very) nature. The jewelled vessel in her hand is called the receptacle of good qualities. Know that sovereignty is represented by the man on whom the god always (appears). By their shape the conch and the lotus should be known as hoards. (Hence) by them (the lotus and the conch) uninterrupted (stream of wealth) is given birth to. By (one) possessing patience the flag bearing the charac- teristic mark of lions should be known as desire. 1 Oh good one, the (two) large teeth are the punishment and reward of that high-souled (god), Oh king, of that king of the Yakshas, this (is the nature as described) in the forest named Anantadauishtraof the 1 Corrupt reading. 80 TEANSLATION Yakshanada. (Oh king) with wide and red eyes, tell me what I shall tell you next. 1 22, Part III, Ch. 54, verses 1-9. Vajra said : Oh descendant of Bhrgu, I wish to hear (the process of) making the image of Supama (Garuda), Tala, Makara, Mrgu and the Maruts. Markandeya replied : Tarkshya has a nose in the shape of an owl, (has) four hands and resembles the emerald (colour), and should be done with circular eyes and face, furnished with two wing, and with legs and thighs of a vulture. (He seems) glowing on account of the nimbus (prabha), (but devoid of feathers in general). One should show in his hands an umbrella and a full pitcher, and his two (other) hands should be folded. When Vishnu is on his back, the hands should not be made with an umbrella and a full pitcher, but they should support the feet of the god. He should be made slightly pot-bellied- and adorned by all ornaments. Tala should be done of the shape of an outspread palm fan. His earring should be done of the shape of a makara, and towards the top of it should be done Achyuta like a star (rksha) 2 Mind, world, love, work, traditionally enumerated in regular succession, are celebrated as Vasudeva, Achyuta, strong-armed Pradyumma and Aniruddha in (due) order. Tarkshya and Makara with Tala should be worshipped as they belong to Vishnu, Yama and Varu^a, the lord of the waters. By the learned they are appointed also for the lord of birds, waters and flames. 1 Corrupt reading. 4 Corrupt reading. TEANfrLATION $1 23. Part III, Ch. S5, Verses 1-6, Vajra said : Oh pious (one), describe to me the process of making the images of $iva, Agni, Nirrti and Vayu because my doubt with regard to it is very great. Markandeya replied : The left half of his body should be ParvatI, and Siva should be with four hands. (One should show) the rosary and the trident in the right handa. Oh delighter of the Yadus, in the left (hands) should be shown a mirror and a lotus. Sambhu should be with one face, with two eyes and adorned by all ornaments, oh high-souled (king). The left part of the body (should be) of his beloved. Oh strong-armed (one), Prakrti with Purusha is marked by close union and celebrated as G-aurlsvara, they are worshipped by all men . The cause of the trident and the like has been explained by me to you before. This is the image of Is&na described to you. Hear now (the description of) the image of Agni, which is always conducive to piety (dharma), for which the Ved&s became current in the world and which is the mouth oj all gods and demons. 24. Part HI, Ch. 56, Verses 1-10, Markaiicjeya said : One should make Vahm (the Firegod) the lord of gods red, with matted locks, with smoke-coloured garment, surrounded with flames, placid, three-eyed, bearded, four-hapded, with four tusks, having Yata (Wind) as his charioteer and sitting on a chariot yoked by four parrots, with smoke as banner (insignia). Like Sachl of Sakra, the goddess Svaha should be rendered holding a jewelled vessel in her hand, and seated on the left (of his) lap. Flames and trident should be (held) in the right hands of Vahni and a rosary in the Ifeft, 11 82 TEANSLATION Ked is verily the colour of tejas (light), so (his) red colour is traditionally fixed. His having Vata as the charioteer and his being the source of flames are evident (i.e., need no comment). His having a garment of the colour of smoke (generated in) sacrifices is said also to be evident. By ambhu have been explained (his other attributes :) rosary, trident, matted locks, three-eyed-ness and wearing of all (suitable) ornaments. The best abode consists of flames, through that he receives oblations directed towards (him) and oh killer of foes, he (the Firegod) accepts them for all gods and carries (them) then (to them). Eeprimand, censure, fine, and the fourth (i.e., corporeal punishment) these are celebrated as his four large tusks. Darbha (a kind of sacred grass used at sacrificial ceremonies) is specified as his highly purifying beard. Those that are the Vedas are the parrots yoked to his chariot. Thus has been described to you the image of Fire, conducive to the success of men and dispeller of sins. Oh king, at the time of (performing) homa this is to be meditated upon by you and in all ceremonies of fire, (this is to be invoked) by (you who are) invincible. 25. Part III, Ch. 57, Verses 1-6. Markandeya said : Virupaksha has expanded-eyes, a majestic staff, a bright face, hairs erect, two hands and a yellow beard. (He is) of limbs reddish-dark by colour, with a dark garment, with all ornaments and with the hand holding staff and reims. Then should be represented by the left the goddess, Nirrti by name as his wife, with dark limbs and a dark face carrying a noose in the hand, 83 Kala (Time) is called Virupaksha and death (mrtyu) is Nirrti. Hence, oh king, (each) wears a dark appearance and dark garments. The staff in his hand is death and the reins of the camel (signify) worldly fetters. His conveyance .(vahana), the camel, is called the great delusion. This Virupaksha form is specified of him, the un- rivalled lord of demons. Now I will describe you to-day, oh king, the image of Vayu, the best (god of) majestic lustre. 26. Part III, Ch. 38, Verses 1-16. Markandeya said : Endowed with form or beauty, Vayu should be with two hands and of the colour of sky and (his) sky-garment (should be) flowing with the wind. Oh twice-born one, by his left should be shown) Siva, his wife, as if moving away from his side. Pavaiua should be shownt holding by both the hands the end of the garment. The god should have dishevelled hair and a diseased face. The goddess Siva again should be done as very beautiful. As Vayu affords shelter to various scents and colours, being their support by his motion, so (he is) of the colour of the unfolded (objects), i. e., of the sky. So his garment is said to be the sky. What is motion is the goddess Siva and the breeze is Aniiruddha, (lit. unhampered). Oh king, thus has been described to you the image of Pavana, who pervades all the universe and of the goddess, Siva, oh high-souled (one), known to all the twice-born (ones) as pure and best. 27. Part III, Ch. 59, Verses 1-7. Markandeya said : Now I narrate to you (the process) of making the image of Bhairava. 34 TRANSLATION One should make (a figure) with round tawny eyes, with a big belly, with a face terrible on account of tusks, with wide nostrils, with a garland of kapalas (skulls), awe-inspiring, frightfully adorned on all sides with snake- ornaments, frightening the goddess ParvatI by the snake and with elephant's skin as the upper garment, resembling in colour t,he water-charged cloud and surrounded by many arms decorated with all sorts of weapons, bearing a like- n^&s to big trees, auspicious having sharp nails. This figure, swaying (with its right hip) is said to be of Bhairava, 1 while shown frontally it is called Mahakala. But the goddess should be placed on the left and in the hand should be held a snake. The goddess ParvatI should not be (in> front of him) and she should not be white or red. 2&. Part III, Cb. 60, Verses 1-6. Vajra said : Oh propagator of the race of Bhrgu, speak (to me about) making the image of Brahma and Vishnu, earth-goddess and Ambara (the sky-god). M^rkandeya said : With one face and two hands the Lord carries the club and the wheel. Another distribution of limbs of Hari has already been narrated, for binding the universe. That power of illusion pertaining to Vishnu is traditionally called Gandhari and the club ini the hand of the god is always (in the act of) subduing all creatures. She herself (i.e., Gandhari) (represents) that very LakshmT, Dhrti, Klrti, Pusti, SraddhS, Sarasvati, Gayatrl, the mother of the Vedas and that Kalaratri too. The wheel which sets the worldly existence a-going is the wheel resting in the hand of Vishnu, the wheel of 1 Cf. Gopinatha Rao, Vol. II, Part T, pi. XII, figs. 51-3. TRANSLATION religion (dharmachakra), the wheel of time (kalachakifa-) the Zodiac (bhachakra), oh big-armed one. 29. Part III, Ch. 61, Verses 1-5. Markantelope skin and the fire shoulc also be in* her hands, but one hand of Bhadrakall should b< bestowing peace (i.e., im the abhaya pose) and the othe one should be carrying a jewel-vessel, oh prosperous (one) 1 Guru is a mistake for Guha ; gee jpawtw. 94 TBANSLATIO& Chaturmukha should be made like Prajapati but without the swan; as has been described by Brahmanu Vinayaka should have the face of an elephant and four hands. A trident and the rosary should be placed in the right hands, an axe and a vessel full of sweets in, the left (ones). Oh destroyer of foes, his left tusk should not be represented. (He should have) a footstool (and) one foot (only) should be OB the seat. The pot full of sweets (referred to above) should be held near the tip of his trunk. Oh descendant of Yadu, (he) should have a big belly and stiff ears, wearing a tiger-skin (as) cloth and having a serpent (as his) sacred thread. The lord Visvakarma should have an appearance like that of the Sun. He, Dasapani should have a lustrous appearance and two hands. As (he) creates the universe, he is traditionally called Visvakarma. The glorious Vishnu (is) the creator of the universe, and hence is said to be Visvakarma. 40, Part III, Ch. 72, Verses 1-8. Vajra said: Oh divine one, oh (sage) worshipped by the gods, describe to me the images of the Vasus, of the Visvadevas, of the Sadhyas, the Adityas, the Maruts, the Bhrgus, the divine Eudras and also the auspicious image of Angirasa. Markandeya replied : The Vasu Dhara should be with the form of Prajapati. Dhruva by name is said to be with the form of Vishnu. Soma should be given the form of the mooni, Andla that of Vayu, Anala that of the firegod and Prabhasa that of Varuna. The Visvadevas should have divine forms like those TEANSLATION 95 of Sakra (i.e., Indra). The king of serpents is devoid of an eye with a bent forehead. The god Angirasa should be giveni the form of Vrhaspati and the Eudras the form of Mahesvara, and those called Sadhyas (should be given) the form of Vishnu. Oh descendant of Yadu, the twelve Adityas (should be) O iven the form of the Sun (Surya) . Different in (the discharge of their work they are traditionally said to be similar to the rising sun. Vishnu, Indra and Varuicia should be made as described by me. The gods called Maruts should be given the form of Sukra. 41. Part III, Ch. 73, Verses 1-51. Oh illustrious (sage) , speak about (the process of making) images of other gods (as) you are said to be omniscient. Markaijdeya replied : The lord Kasyapa should be given the form of Prajapati. Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kastha, Danayu, Siiphika, Muni, Kadru, Krodha, Dara, Pradha, VinatS, Surabhi and Khasa these ancient divine mothers should all be rendered beautiful and with two hands. Oh delighter of the Yadus, of these, i.e., Aditi, Vinata, Diti and Surabhi, the glance should be shown mild. With this form, oh best of the Yadavas, all the divine mothers should be represented by one (engaged) in the work of making images. The other wives of Kasyapa should have lashing eyes. Dhruva, the lord of the multitude of planets (graha), should be shown having the form of Vishnu, placid-looking, with two arms, wheel and rays in the hand. Agastya, the great sage, should be given the appearance of Bhavishya Manu. Of the high-souled Bhrgu and others, the appearance is said to be similar. The sons of Sukra and Jayanta should be made with two hands carrying a bow and an arrow, placid-looking, pleasing and endowed with grace. ^6 TRANSLATION The lord Batfa, the son of Yama, should bear the spear and the shield; and Pushkara should be of the colour of the lotus- leaf. The sword and the book should be shotra in his hands. Jyotsna (Moonlight), the daughter of the moon, unrivalled on the earth through (her) beauty, should be oiu the left side, adorned by all ornaments. The lord Nalakuvera, source of wealth, should be of good-looking form, with a face having two tusks and carrying a jewel- vessel inihis hand. The learned should know Manibhadra to be with the appearance of the wealth-giver (Kuvera). No raised platform (sivika) should be made for him, (he) with his wife having a man for his vahana. Purojava, the son of Vayu, should be given the appear- ance of Vayu and the lord Varchas, the son of Soma, should be very beautiful, carrying in hand a lotus at ease whereby (he) becomes radiant. The strong armed Nandi should be represented with four arms and three eyes, of the colour of the ruddy sun, and having the tiger's skin as his garment. (One) should put in his hands the trident and a short javelin. The third (should be) placed on the hand (?) and the fourth should be threatening an advancing man visible from a distance. The learned should know Virabhadra, too, by this (outward) appearance. I shall describe to you, later on, the appearance of Dharma. Artha should have the appearance of the high-souled wealth-giver. The god Kama (Love) should be rendered unrivalled on the earth by reason of his beauty. He should have 8 arms, adorned with the conch and the lotus, carrying a bow and an arrow in the hand, and with eyes sportively handsome through drink. Rati, Priti, Sakti and Madasakti, these four beautiful wives of him should be done charmingly beautiful. TRANSLATION 97 Four of his hands should be shown touching the bosoms of his wives. Makara should be made his flag and he, the great is shown with five arrow-heads. By the left (one) should make Nidra (marked) by the hand placed on the waist. And on her right side (there) .should be Samkarsha^a. Vasudeva is similarly rendered, and on the left is the son Maikanesan. 1 Oh sinless one, I shall speak to you about the image of Lakshml later on. The goddess Sarasvatl should be represented with four hands. Oh delighter of the Yadus, in her hands should be shown properly the rosary, the trident, the book and the water vessel 1 . The very beautiful goddess Varu^I should be with a pitcher. She, capable of subduing all creatures, is called Chamunda. Having weapons in hands and with many hands, a big belly, the bosom covered by a red cloth, carrying a spear in the hand and on a huge car that mighty (one) should be represented. (Almost) similar (but) by way of distinction Sushka should be made haggard-looking and with three faces. The goddess furnished with many hands is surrounded by snakes. Bhlma is shown having a garland of skulls and carrying a khatvanga (skull-staff). The messenger Siva 2 should be rendered shining (and) with a jackal-face. Oh king, the goddess carrying a vessel full of blood, the sword and the spear has four hands and is standing m the all'lha posture. Her fourth hand should be shown carrying flesh. Those marked by the name of divine and described by me before, the mothers should be furnished with suitable 1 Corrupt reading. 1 Cf. G. Rao, Vol. I, p. j. p. 125 and the image of Sivaduti in the Nag^ur Museum. 13 98 TRANSLATION forms and (marked) by the god-like marks. Those mighty (ones) whose form has not been described should be shown dancing and carrying vessels full of blood and flesh in the hands. The Eastern direction should be a lady red and seated on an elephant. The South-eastern is a bulky maiden of the colour of the lotus, seated on a female elephant. The Southern should be yellowish, placed on a chariot and with youth (fully) attained. The South-western belonging to Varuiia is dark-yellow and seated on a camel. The West is dark, destitute of youth and seated on a horse. Oh delighterof the Yadus, Vadava (the NW) is blue and with hair almost grey. The North is white, old and borne by a man . The North-east should be very old, white, and seated on a bull. The lower region is similar to the earth and the upper region is suspended in the sky. The ever-present Kala should be shown with a noose in the hand, terrific, with a large face having hairs on the body (in the shape of) serpents and scorpions. Fever should be represented with three feet, having ashes as his weapon, with flashing eyes, and fierce, with three faces having three eyes and three arms. Dhanvantari should be good-looking, with a beautiful form. A pitcher full of nectar should be placed in both of his hands. Eternal Samaveda should be represented but with the face of a dog. Or by the clever the Vedas should be made with the form of gods (as follows). The Rgveda is traditionally regarded as Brahma and the Yajurveda as Indra, the Samaveda should be Vishnu an<3 the Atharva, Sambhu, TBANSLATION 9$ Siksha should be known as Prajapati and Kalpa is celebrated as Brahma. SarasvatI is Grammar (vyaka- rana) and the lord Varuna is Nirukta. Chandas is the Earth, and Jyotisa is the glorious Sun. Mlmansa is the glorious Moon and Nyaya, the Wind, Dharma (represents) Dharmasastras andManu, the Purana. Prajapati (represents) Itihasa and Satakratu Dhanur- veda. The lord god Dhanvantari himself is Ayurveda and the goddess Mahi (represents) the Phalaveda. Mahesvara (represents) the science of dancing (Nrtyasastra). Samkarshana (represents) thePancharatra, Rudra, the Pas'upata and Ananta, the Patanjala and the sage Kapila the Samkhya. The lord of wealth (Kuvera) is celebrated (as representing) all the sciences of wealth ( Arthasastra) . The god Kama, instructor of the world, (represents) all the fine and mechanical arts (Kala- sastra). All the other sciences are said to be produced by that author who is the deity of that (particular science). He represents the body of the sastra kavya. Oh destroyer of foes, the form of the different limbs of time should be made resembling the appearance of their owni god. (?) Oh moon of the Yadu race, thus has been described to you the form of all the best of the gods. 42. Part III, Ch. 74, Verses 1-5. Vajra said : Oh sinless one, tell me (the process of) making the form of a Ling a. Markandeya replied : Verily when a Linga is worship- ped, the adoration of the world should be (regarded as) accomplished. The upper portion of it should be round, but one should make the middle portion octagonal and that near the brahmapltha (i.e., the lowermost portion) is square. The round portion is to be shown (entirely), while iOO TRANSLATION the octagonal portion) is inserted into the pindika and the square portion is within the brahmapltha. Towards the top of the Linga from the front the hem should be marked, well rounded and curvated upward. All other (charac- teristics) of the Linga were laid down by the learned in the Brahmasutra and have to be selected with discrimi- nation. 43. Part III, Ch. 75, Verses 1-9. Vajra said : Oh best of the supporters of dharma, describe to me the form of Vyoma (upper regions), for he being worshipped, the worship of the world should be (regarded as) accomplished. Markandeya replied : The lowermost portion should be square and then circular, oh strong-armed (one), then slightly four-sided 1 and then (fully) square. Then slightly four sided and placid like the Meru. This (the lowermost) is called bhadrapitha, the third part of Vyoma. This is the nature or characteristic of all the bhadraplthas. The middle portion is said to be four-sided and is known as sambhava. On the topmost portion, there (one) should place the lotus with eight beautiful petals and on the pericarp in) its midst, the Sun-god. On the petals (one) should place the Dikpalas in their proper places. Underneath the bhadrapitha (one should) fix the Earth. Therefore (the learned) know the lotus (to be) the upper regions, all the chief gods are close at hand there. Oh strong-armed one, Vyoma has been described to you as full of all gods and one gets all desires by performing its worship. Oh you hero, the chief of the Yadava family, by me has thus been described to you the true form of Vyoma. 1 With edges bevelled off ? TRANSLATION 101 Through the worship of Vyoma the entire world should be (regarded as) worshipped. 44. Part III, Ch. 76, Verses 1-5. Oh delighter of the Bhrgus, Nara and Narayana should be endowed with what form? (And) how should Hari and Krshija be made ? Markandeya replied : Green like the Durva grass, Nara should be represented with two hands, Oh strong-armed one. Narayana with four hands resembles (in colour) the blue-lotus stalk. In their midst should be Vadari decorated with fruits. Along-side Vadari they should be shown carry- ing rosaries and on an eight-wheeled beautiful chariot endowed with grandeur. Self-contained (they should be represented), wearing black-antelope-skins and braided hair forming coils on the top of their heads, with one foot placed on the chariot and with the other touching the knee. Hari should be like Nara and Krshna resembling Narayana. 45. Part III, Ch. 77, Verses 1-10. Vajra said : Oh pious (one), oh conqueror, describe to me (the process of) making the image of Dhanna, Jfiana (Knowledge), Vairagya (Detachment) and Aisvarya (Wealth). Markandeya said : By one who knows, Dharma should be made four-faced, four-footed and four-armed," with a white garment, possessed of all ornaments, and of white colour. In his right hand (one should show) the rosary and in the left the book. By the right side should be shown Adherence (Vyavasaya) in person and by the left Happiness very beautiful. The hands of Dharma should be placed on the head of (either of) them. 102 TRANSLATION Kala is traditionally known as the rosary and the Veda (agama), the book. The four faces are yajna (sacrifice), satya (truth), tapas (austerity) and dana (liberality). Time and place, purity and purification (each of these) is traditionally known as ant arm of him. Oh pious (one), the four feet of that god should be known as sruti (revela- tion), smrti (recollection), good behaviour and self-content- ment. He is celebrated as having knowledge for his garment and as white on account of the preponderance of sattva. Or fourteen 1 wives of him should be represented. Kirti (fame), Lakshml (fortune), Dhrti (fortitude), Medha (in- tellect), Pushti (development), Sraddha (reverence), Kriya (activity), Mati (judgment), Buddhi (intelligence), Lajja (bashfulness), Santi (peace), Siddhi (success), and Tushti (satisfaction), the fourteenth. All these doors of dharma have been pointed out to you. They should be endowed with forms, lustrous and well-ornamented and with two hands. Only if any one is accompanied by his wife and then is initiated (into the mysteries of Dharma) then Dharma should be (regarded as) established. 46. Part III, Ch. 78, Verses 1-13. Markandeya said : That Vishnu assuming the shape of the Man-lion (Narasimha) has been called jnana (know- ledge) by those knowing dhyana (meditation), oh tormentor of the strength of others. With broad shoulder, hip and neck, with lean middle and a small abdomen, the main (part of the) body lustrous, decorated by all ornaments, he should be in the position of alldha on a throne. The face surrounded by a garland of flames has flames as manes. (He is shown as) piercing the heart of Hiranyakasipu with sharp nails. The demon Hiranyakasipu should be of the colour of the blue lotus and TRANSLATION 103 placed on the knee of the god. The learned know him to be ignorance (ajfiana). The lord (really) embodying the soul of Sarhkarshaija, is the destroyer of ignorance. Oh twice-born (one), the god Sarhkarshana always destroys up the threefold impurity of this world (i.e., that) .sprung from speech, mind and body. Hari as the part (manifestation) of Samkarshana as- suming the shape of the Man-liom (Narashnha) , becomes the dispeller of the three kinds of tamas. Eesembling his form (assumed) through kindness, no other form exists in this universe. The Nrsimha form of the god is the dispeller of all ignorance. The lord god Hari should be easily seated on a lion-throne, furnished with two hands resting on the heads of Gada (the personified club). The lord with a body full of flames and carrying a conch and a lotus has (his) feet slightly raised, and placed on the hands of the earth endowed with human form. Or Narasimha should be beautified by hands holding the conch, the wheel, the club and the lotus and with hair looking like curling flames of fire, to be seen with difficulty on account of the prabhamandala (halo). He should be fur- nished with all implements (but) devoid of all ornaments. Nrsimha, the sky-coloured, the receptacle of lustre, the lord of the worlds, is knowledge. Of that inscrutable Janardana, the three-fold form has thus been narrated by me. 47. Part III, Ch. 79, Verses 1-11. Varaha, (is) the glorious Hari, in whom (is) centred (all the) wealth (aisvarya) and he holds Earth by the tip of his tusk through the power of his aisvarya (i.e., greatness). Or the Human-boar, the Lord should be placed on Sesha. Sesha should be represented with four hands, with beau- tiful jewelled hoods, with eyes wide open and beaming with 104 TRANSLATION wonder and engaged in, looking at the god. Oh descendant of Yadti, in his hands should be placed the plough and the mace (or club). (He) should further be shown hands joined in the anjali pose and with snake ornaments. Bhagavan should be on his back standing int the alldha posture. Clinging to (his) left arm Earth should be represented as a wonmn engaged in respectful salutation, beautiful and with two hands. In that hand which supports the goddess (Earth) there should be the conch and his other hands should be rendered carrying the lotus, the wheel and the mace. Or Bhagavan; should be with Hiranyaksha (standing) in front with raised spear, (his own) hand with the wheel (being) ready to cut off the head of Hiranyaksha. The learned know Hiranyaksha to be Absence of power incarnate. He, the destroyer of foes, was destroyed by Varaha through (his) aisvarya (power). Or (he) should be represented with two hands about to carry the earth. With the form of an entire boar amidst numerous Danavas hi (the act of) supporting the earth (he) should be shown (either as) a Mrvaraha (Human-boar) (or merely as a) boar. The glorious Aniruddha should be Varaha who rescued the entire earth through (his) power (aisvarya) and contem- plation (yoga). His power, the dispeller of all sins (as he is), oh king, was not arrested in any place. 48. Part III, Ch. 80, Verses 1-6. Vajra said : Oh strong-armed one, in this connection I wish to hear the (description of the) form Hayagriva of Vishnu of immeasurable greatness. Markaiicjeya replied : The god with (the) head of a horse (i.e., Hayagriva) sbcruld. he sttowai wearing a blue TRANSLATION 105 garment and with a smiling countenance and with (his) feet resting on< the hands of the goddess earth. Know the god Hayagrlva to be a part of Samkarsharia. The god should be with eight hands and in four of his hands the learned (icon-maker) should show the conch, the wheel, the mace and the lotus endowed with forms (sakara). The four (other) hands should be placed by the god on the head of the personified Vedas. By the god Hayagrlva wearing all ornaments, in days of yore the Vedas were rescued . Oh chief of the Yadava family, the Vedas were stolen by two chief demons and by the Supreme Being having the head of a horse, by that excellent (god) they were res- cued from the nether region. 49. Part III, Ch. 81, Verses 1-8. Vajra raid : Describe (to) me the form of Padmanabha, 1 the lord of the worlds, wherein Brahma, the god of gods, was born from the lotus-face. Markaruleya replied : Sesha, looking like a snake, with a head to be seen with difficulty on account of valuable gems and a number of hoods, should be represented lying in water. Thereon the god of gods should be shown asleep with four heads. Oh lord (of the earth) one of his legs should be placed on the lap of Lakshml. The other should be placed on the flank of the body of Sesha. One of his hands should be extended over the knee. Another hand should be placed on the navel and a third should be under the head of the god. And the remaining one should be holding a sprout of the Santana (tree). Oh descendant of Yadu, on the lotus 1 C/. a, Rao, 1. c, 14 106 TEANSLATION containing the entire earth (and) sprung from his navel- pool in front of the goddess (Lakshml) Brahma should be shown. Clinging to the lotus-stalks should be Madhu and Kaitabha. Then near the snake there should be weapons in human shape. 1 Oh leader of the Yadava chiefs, thus has beem described to you the image of that great god. 50. Part III, Ch. 82, Verses 1-16. Vajra said : Oh propagator of the Bhrgu race, speak to me about the form of Lakshml, the mother of the entire earth and the wife of the high-souled Vishnu. Markandeya replied : The goddess Lakshml, oh king, should be of divine form, fair, wearing white garments, near Hari, adorned by all ornaments, with two hands, unrivalled in point of beauty on earth and carrying beautiful lotuses in the hand. The goddess separately should be represented with four hands on an auspicious throne. On her throne should be a lotus with beautiful pericarps and eight petals, Oh prosperous (king). Oh strong-armed (one), the goddess should be seated like Vinayaka on the pericarp. Oh best of the Yaclavas, in her right hand should be a conspicuous lotus with long stalk, touching the end of the armlet. Oh king, in the left should be a charming nectar-pot. Oh king, the other two hands should carry a conch and a Bilva (Aegle Marmelos). Behind her back there should be a pair of elephants pouring out the contents of two jars. Above the head of the goddess should be a charming lotus. Know that to be good luck and the conch to be prosperity, the Bilva to be the entire world and the lotus in 1 Ayudha purushas, i.e., personified weapons. TEANSLATION 107 the hand of Lakshml to be the nectarine essence of water. Oh best of the twice-born, take the pair of elephants as exalted rank and the conch and the lotus to be two seas. Or (the goddess) should be made standing on a lotus, with two hands, carrying the conch and the lotus, beautiful in all her limbs, adorned by all ornaments, of the colour of the interior of the lotus, glorious and wet. Over and near the head two handsome Vidyadharas should be shown flying near the head, with the right-hands placed on the heads, with the (left) hands carrying swords and engaged in looking at the goddess. Near that goddess should be done Rajasri, Svarga Lakshml, Brahml Lakshml and Jaya Lakshml. (They) should all be made with beautiful figures and well-ornamented. Oh high-souled (king), know that lotus oni which stood Lakshmi to be Kesava (because) separated from Madhusudana she the mother of the universe does not rest in peace for a moment even. 51. Part III, Ch. 83, Verses 1-14. Vajra said : Eemove my doubt as to the form with which Hari, assuming the form of Visvarupa, should be represented. You are verily called omniscient. Mfirkandeya said : To begin with the god should be shown four-faced. Over that again should be Mahesvara faces. They are devoid of the Isana face (as) told by me before. Above them should be placed the Brahml face as aforesaid. Then other faces should be placed upwards but in a curved line. (One) should make (faces) of all the gods and others too. 1 The faces that are of various shapes (belonging) to all living creatures and all those glances specified by the 1 Cf. R5p maQdana. 108 TRANSLATION high-souled (seers) in the rules of chitra should be shown on his heads in part. He should be shown devouring (everything). Various beings should be shown shaking with other (i.e., all sorts of) faces, all conducive to the terror of (all) sentient beings. (There are) other faces which are auspicious. According to the capacity (of the artist) that god should be made. Those hand-poses which were seen by the illustrious (sages) in the science of dancing should all be shown (performed by) the arms of that god. Other hands should be adorned with all weapons, others carrying sacrificial sticks, pots of (i.e., containing) Time, arts and music. Oh infallible (one) , another form different from this should be like that of Vaikuntha (another form of Vishnu). Moreover, oh king, by way of chitra (paintings) according to the rules of the Sastras one should show the whole aggregate of the three worlds attached to his body. Of that high-souled, many-formed god all the colours should be shown (painted) on his various heads. Thus should be made, according to (one's own) power, the Lord, whole and entire, the chief of the worlds. The form of that Supreme Being is beyond being described in its entirety, what to speak of its being made. 52. Part III, Ch. 84, Verses 1-15. Markandeya said : Listen to my description of the (process of) making the image of Aiduka. By worshipping Aiduka the worship of this world should be (regarded as) accomplished. Oh best of the Yadavas, oh subduer of enemies, the learned should make a bhadrapitha furnished with four pleasing steps in all directions. TEANSLATION 109 Oh subduer of foes, (one) should place another bhadra- pitha above it and another over it like that. By one who knows, a phallic figure should be placed on the top of it; it should also be furnished with the lines of a phallus. In the midst of it (one) should show a quadrangular fixed staff. Over it should be thirteen steps. Over it there should be a shining raft. And over it again there should be made a well rounded staff, oh king, inserted into a half moon and decorated by solar and lunnr discs. Oh king, the steps which have been referred to by me and the shining raft should be knowni by you to be the fourteen worlds. In the phallus is the god Mahesvara and the circular staff is Brahma. The stick that is quadrangular is the god JanSrdana. The three bhadrapllhas should be known as the three qualities. The three worlds containing (all that is) move- able and immoveable are said to be the receptacle of the three qualities. Below the worlds but above the phallus the Lokapalas should be represented on four sides carrying spears in hands Viruda, Dhrtarastra, Virupaksa and the powerful Kuvera, oh descendant of Yadu. They should be armoured, adorned by all auspicious ornaments, handsome and wearing dresses like the sun (i.e., Surya). Know Sakra, the lord of the hosts of the Devas and Dhrtarashtra the lord of Ganas to be Yama, the conductor of the world. Know Virupaksha to be Varuija, the lord of waters and Kuvera, the king of kings, as the master wealth-giver. Oh chief of the Jadu family, thus has been described by me the image of Aiduka, said to be conducive to the well-being of the people. 110 TEANSLATION 53. Tart III, Ch. 85, Verses 1-79. Oh descendant of Bhrgu, narrate to me (the process of) making the image of the high-souled, eternal, omni- form god, Vasudeva. Markandeya replied : He has one face, four arms, and is of placid form, good to look at. He is adorned with all (suitable) ornaments, of the colour of the water-laden cloud, shining with a meek with auspicious lines like the conch, furnished with the best of kunialas (ear-ornaments), pro- vided with a good covering. He wears armlets, has fastened bracelets round the armlets and is decorated by the vanamala, supports on the bosom the kaustubha jewel and on the head the kirlta. The lotus over the head of this (god) should have charm- ing pericarps. He is slim, with long arms and joined fists and has fingers with copper (coloured) nails. Between his legs the earth should be shown with the appearance of a woman, tawny like the emblic myrobalan and with a middle beau- tified by the wavy trivall (i.e., the three folds above the nuvel of a woman regarded as a mark of beauty). The god Janardama should have his feet placed a tula apart, with the right slightly stretched and with the feet placed on the hands of that (earth-goddess). The earth should be made with glances (as if) surprised at the sight of the god and the god should be rendered with his waist-cloth extend- ing up to the knee. Vanamala (flower garland) should extend to the knee of the god and the sacred thread should extend to the navel. (Orre) should put into the right hand of the god a full-blown lotus and the conch should be placed in the left-hand with the shape of a conch. TRANSLATION ill On the right should be the goddess Gada, in the shape of a woman with a thin middle, with beautiful eyes, adorned with all ornaments and lovely. The goddess should carry a ch^mara looking at the lord of the god of gods. The right hand of the god should be placed on her head. Placed on the left side should be Chakra with a big belly, furnished with all ornaments, with eyes wide open (as) in dancing. He should carry a chamara and should be en- gaged at looking at the god. The left hand of the god should be placed on the head of that (Ghakra). Vajra said : What (is) the fear of that god that he is always with all weapons ready, as He is (there) the soul of all and the di speller of the fear of the dwellers in heaven. Markandeya replied : Oh descendant of Yadu, these are not weapons by their true nature but the chief elements (which) the lord Hari supports. Oh strong-armed (king), know (that) the conch in the hand of the god is the sky and the chakra (wheel) to be the air and gada (club) of that lord, the heat and lotus placed in the middle of the legs to be water. These chief elements forsaken by Hari, oh king, are soon split up, so Hari sup- ports (them). Vishnu is called the Supreme Soul and the souls in the body (of creatures) are quitted by (emanated from) Him. See for yourself that by all means the elements (forsaken by him) are split up (whereas) by the elements held up by the god the world is supported, oh delighter of the Yadus. His (main) function as Vishuu consists in that power of him which supports. The lord Samkarshana should have the appearance of Vasudeva but with a white body arid a blue dress, oh best of the Yadus. In place of gada, the pestle (should be represented) and in place of chakra, the plough. They should be endowed 112 TRANSLATION with the forms of men, furnished with beauty and with thin middle. Pradyumna again should have the appearance of Vasudeva but he is green like the dSr^a-sprout and wears a white garment. In place of the wheel should be the bow and in place of the club the arrow and the plough and spear should be shown similar to them (i. e., assuming human bodies). (One) should make this image, too, for Aniruddha, with a body of the colour of the lotus-petal and wearing a red cloth. In place of the wheel should be the sword. The personified shield should have the appearance of chakra personified (but) the sword is rendered as a man of high stature. Their beautiful real forms in the shape of wea- pons should be partially shown on the heads of chakra and others, oh descendant of Yadu. The distinguished ensigns of the gods should be shown on the left side and mounted on staffs and furnished with their (own) symbols. (One) should make the porter of Vasudeva of yellow colour. The two heroes, Subhadra and Vasubhadra by name have darts in their hands. Asadha and Yajnatata should be door-keepers for Sam- karshma. Illustrious they (are) of a blue colour and carry clubs. The door-keepers of Pradyumna ar> Jaya and Vijaya, Oh illustrious (king), they are of a white colour and carry swords. Amoda and Pramoda of great strength, the chief of the gods, of a white colour and carrying spears should be known as the porters of Aniruddha, oh prosperous (king). They should all be decorated by all ornaments and with good figures. They should have two hands with forefingers raised. TBANSLATION 118 Their glance should be directed towards the door, oh strong- armed (king). Know Subhadra to be Sakra and Vasubhadra, HutSsana (i.e., Fire-god) and know A.sadha to be Yama, the chief-god of gods, oh descendant of Yadu. Know Yajnatata to be the unreproachable god Virupaksha and Jaya to be Varuija, the great lord of the waters. Oh delighter of the Yadus, know Vijaya to be* Pavana and Amoda as Kuvera and Pramoda as Siva. They all should be with bodies as described by Diftnaga. So they have been thus described again by the high-souled (sages). Oh king, (these are) the eight attendants of gods and hear me speak about them. The porters of Vasudeva are regarded as cwima (the power of becoming as small as an atom) and laghima (the power of assuming excessive light- ness at will). The porters of Samkarshana are named mahima (the power of increasing size at will) and prapti (the power of obtaining anything at will). The two regarding Pradyumna are called Prakamya (irresistible will) and isitva (greatness one of the eight siddhis or super- natural attributes). Know Amoda to be vasitva (the power of control, one of the eight siddhis). Know Pramoda, revered by all people to be there where (rests) kamavasayita (the power of suppressing passions one of the eight siddhis). Thus has been described to you (the process of) making the image of the four-formed God. (He) called Vaikuiitha should be made having one form only. He, the Lord should be made with four faces and (has been) described before. The four-fold face being shown he becomes the four- formed (deity), 15 114 TRANSLATION The eastern should be placid which all know to be the chief. The southern one, the face of knowledge, should be made resembling a lion-face. That western face which is terrible is called wealth (aisvarya). Other features of the four faces should be rendered as described. Oh delighter of the Yadus, Tarkshya (Garu, 108. Naraya^a, 1 01, 115. Nasatyas, 72, 73. Nidra, 96. Nirrti, 81, 82, 83, Nirukta, 99. Nysimha, 103, 114. INDEX 127 Nrtyasastra, 99. NySya, 99, Padmanabha, 105, 114. Paila, 115. Parfakti, 89. Paficharatra, 99. ParvatI, 81, 84. PaSupata, 99, Pstanjala, 99. Pavana, 83, 113. Phalaveda, 99. Pindika, 10p, Pirigala, 89. Prabhasa, 94. PrSdha, 95. Pradyumna, 70, 77, 80, 112, 113, 116. Prajapati, 94, 95, 97, 99. Prakamya, 113. Prakrti, 72, 76, 81. Pramoda, 112, 113. PrSpti, 113. Prlti, 96. Prthu, 115, Parana, 99. Purojava, 96. Pimisha, 67, 81. Pushkara, 96, 114. Puafci, 84. Rahu, 91. Rajasrl, 107. Hajni, 89. Rama, 114, 115, 116. Rati, 77, 96. Ravi, 89. Rddhi, 79, Revanta, 89, 92. Rgveda, 68, 98. Rikshubha, 89. Rudra, 67, 70, 71, 94, 95, 99, 114. Rukminl, 116. Rupa-Sampad, 73. Sachl, 73, 8 i. Sadaiva, 71. SSdhya, 94, 95. SadyojSta, 71. Sahadeva, 116. Sakra, 73, 74, 81, 95, 109, 113, Sakti, 86, 96. Samaveda, 98. Samba, 116. Sambhu, 71, 74,81,82,97. Sarbbarshana, 70, 75, 76, 97, 99, 103, 105, 111, 113, SSmkhya, 99. Sani, 91. Santana (tree), 74, 105. Santi, 102. Saptadhatu, 90. SarasvatI, 84, 86, 97. Sarva, 87. gastra, 86, 116. gatakratu, 99. gatrughim, 115. gatya, 10^5. Satyabhama, 116. Saumya, 65. Savarna Manu, 92. SSvitrl, 85. gesha, 86, 114. Siddhi, 102, 113. SikshS, 97. Simhlka, 95. Siva, 65, 71,72, 81, Siva, 83,97, 113. Skanda, 93. Sky, 85. Smrti, 102, Soma, 94, 96. Sraddha, 84, 102. Sraja, 90. Sri, 114. Sruti, 10^. Subhadra, 112, 1 13. Sukra, 91, 95. ult, 75. Sumanta, 1 15, Suparna, 80. Surabhl, 95. Surya, 89, 92, ?5, 100, 109. Sushka, 97. Suvarehasa, 89. Svaha, 81. Svarga Lakshml, 107. Tala, 80. Tapas, 102. . Tarkshya, 80, 113. 128 INDEX Tatpurusha, 71. Tumburu, 87, 88. Tushtf, 102. TrimanSs, 90, Tristubh, 89, Trivikrama, 114. Tryambaka, 87. UmSvaktra, 71. Ushnik, 89. Vach, 90. Vadail, 101. Vadl, 90. Vahni, 81,93. Vaikuntha, 107, 113 Vairagya, 101. VaiSampayana, 115. Vala, 116. Valmlki, 115. VSmadeva, 71. Vamana, 114. Varaha,65, 103, 104, 114. Varchas, 96. Varuna, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 94, 95, 97,99, 109, 115. Varunl, 97, VaSitva, 113. Vasu, 94. Vasubhadra, 112, 113. Vasu Dbara, 94. Vasudeva, 70, 74, 77, 80, 93, 97, 110, 111, 112,113. Vasuki, 72. Vata, 81, 82. Vayu, 81, 83, 94, 96. Vedas, 81, 82, 84, 86, 98, 102, 105. Vijaya,87, 88, 112, 113. Vinata, 95. Vinayaka, 94, 106 Vlrabhadra, 96. Viruda, 109. Virupaksha,81, 83, 109, 11*. Visakha, 93 Vishnu, 65, 68, 70, 76, 79, 80, 84, 86,87, 91, 93, 94,95, 97, 102, 104, 106, 111, 115, 116. Visvadeva, 94- Visvakarma, 94. Visvarupa, 107, 114. Vrhaspati, ( ,1, 95. VrhatI, 89. Vrkodara, 115. Vraa, 90, Vyasa, 115. Vyavasaya, 101. Vyoma, 90, 100, 101. Yajfia, 102. Yajnatata, 112, 113. Yajurveda, 68. Yaksha, 79. Yaraa, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 92, 96, 109, 113. Yamuna, 77, 78. YaSoda, 116. Yudishthira, 115. Yuyudhana, 1 1 6. EEEATA p. 3 line 22 read " For the sight of the worlds He exists with " instead of fl For seeing the worlds (He) possesses" p. 3 line 26 read " artist " instead of ^artists " p. 5 line 16* read " painting and image making * l instead of " painting " ,, ,, line 16 read " might " instead of " would " ,, ,, line 20 read " painting and image making seem to " instead of " painting must " p. 8 line 6 read " genre " instead of " gentry" ,, ,, Footnote read "Laufer" instead of " Dauffer " p. 9 line 9 read " Eaurava " instead of " Eauraa " ,, ,, line 21 read " seen) 8 " instead of " seen " , , , , Footnote read ' ' Lauf er ' ' instead of ' ' Lauffer ' ' ,, ,, Footnote read " 8 ) Greek " instead of " Greek M p. 11 line 19 read "namely, what influence " instead of * c namely, ' f , , line 33 read ' ' men astrologically determined/ ' instead of " men/' p. 38 line 1 read " toe " instead of " toes " p. 40 line 19 read " robbing) the... lustrous." instead of " robbing the... lustrous)/' p. 43 line 12 read "^fz" instead of "^R" p. 44 Footnote 4 omit "one" p. 60 line 21 read " palace " instead of " place " ,, ,, line 28 read " i.e." insteaJ of " e.g." p.. 65 line 20 read "ornaments," instead of ornaments ,, ,, line 16 read " mottled " instead of " matted " p. 70 line 33 read " cutting off " instead of " cutting of " EEEATA p. 71 Footnote read " i.e., tejas " instead of " i.e., eight tejas ' ' p. 87 line 28 read " Jaya and Vijaya" instead of " Jaya and Vijaya " p. 88 hoes 1 and 2 read ,, ,, ,, p, 109 line 23 "Dhptarftshtra" instead of "Dhrtarftgtra"